Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Vulnerable dark triad, motivation, and emotion

Vulnerable dark triad, motivation, and emotion:
How does the vulnerable dark triad relate to motivation and emotion?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview Before we delve deep into the complexities of The Vulnerable Dark Triad, I want you to consider the following. Clear your mind, and once it is clear, I want you to envisage an individual. When you have constructed this individual in your mind, I want you to consider how you feel about this person as you read through the personality traits and behaviours I ascribe to them. The individual in your mind, they appear quite cocky, egotistical as if they have a grandiose sense of self. You are aware that others and at times yourself have found this person to be manipulative, antagonistic and often cold. The characteristic that stands out the most to you about them is that they are unpredictable, prone to reactive displays of emotion, often exhibiting reactive anger and antisocial behaviours. You view this person as someone with an inflated view of themselves, who displays disregard for others and is prone to reactive emotional displays. Now imagine this. You come to know more about this person. You find out their childhood was marked by extreme child abuse combined with poor parenting, and an invalidating environment. You learn that 'little them' learned to be fearful of relationships and to exhibit extreme emotions in order to yield a response from the external world. You learn that they have few friends, many failed relationships and battle with low self esteem and self worth. On top of this they have poor mental health, which fluctuates in extremes. The individual we have constructed just now loads highly on the traits of the Vulnerable Dark Triad.

Figure 1. Expressive image of intense emotionality and need for expression.

Focus questions This chapter will explore the following in order to capture the complexity of the Vulnerable Dark Triads relationship to emotion and motivation. What is the Vulnerable Dark Triad? What is the relationship of Vulnerable Narcissism, Factor Two Psychopathy and Borderline Personality Disorder with the basic models of personality? How does the Vulnerable Dark Triad related to emotion and motivation?

Emergence of the vulnerable dark triad

The clustering of dark personality traits within personality psychology and trait theory was initially conceptualised by Paulhus and Williams (2002) when they identified The Dark Triad, composed of three related yet distinct members, Narcissism, Psychopathy and Machiavellianism. The 'Darkness’ associated with these traits, indicative of their mutual use of antagonistic, dishonest and egocentric interpersonal styles (Miller, et al. 2010). Within recent literature, subclinical (everyday) sadism was introduced as a fourth member of this cluster group and by this, the dark triad has been expanded into the dark tetrad in contemporary literature (Johnson et al., 2019).

The vulnerable dark triad

The Vulnerable Dark Triad emerged as a cluster group in response to the recognition of the heterogeneity of the two constructs, Narcissism and Psychopathy (Miller, 2010). The Vulnerable Dark Triad hence is comprised of Factor 2 Psychopathy (distinct from Factor 1 Psychopathy), Vulnerable Narcissism (distinct from Grandiose Narcissism) and Borderline Personality Disorder. The Vulnerable Dark Triad members are significantly related to one another and manifest similar nomological networks related to negative emotionality, antagonistic interpersonal styles, introversion and disinhibition (Miller, 2010). In short, The Vulnerable Dark Triad, combines the ‘Darkness’, i.e antagonistic interpersonal styles of the Dark triad, with the added core feature of emotional vulnerability which serves as a core motivating factor for such antagonistic interpersonal styles.

“ ...the current evidence supports the existence of a second “dark” triad, one that is characterized by an antagonistic interpersonal style and emotional vulnerability... ” — Miller et al., 2010

Heterogeneity of psychopathy

The dominant model of Psychopathy is the two factor model, assessed commonly with the Psychopathy Checklist (PCL) and later its revision (later PLC-R) (Miller et al, 2010). Within this model, psychopathy is conceptualised as having two higher order factors, Factor 1 and Factor 2 psychopathy.

Factor 1 Psychopathy is characterised by interpersonal and affective components, genetic origins leading to emotional deficiencies (Miller et al, 2010). Factor 2 Psychopathy in contrast is an emotionally conditioned adaptation to environmental factors which produce an impulsive and unstable character, often exhibiting antisocial and antagonistic behaviours when responding to negative emotion (Wai, 2012). Factor 2 Psychopathy reflecting affective disturbance and is characterised by high levels of positive and negative emotionality, high levels of neuroticism, antisocial behaviour, aggression (reactive) and hostility in the presence of frustrating situations (Curtis & Jones, 2020). In short, whilst both factors of Psychopathy are related to antagonist interpersonal styles, Factor 2 Psychopathy is additionally related to disinhibition and negative emotionality (Miller et al, 2010).

Heterogeneity of narcissism

Alike psychopathy, there are multiple factor models that approach the construct of Narcissism, there are however two dominant higher order factors that dominate the literature, Grandiose and Vulnerable Narcissism.

Grandiose Narcism is characterised by .Vulnerable narcissism is characterised with defensive, hypersensitive and insecure grandiosity which is often attributed to a need to mask feelings of inadequacy, incompetence and negative affect (REF). Those high in vulnerable narcissism experience emotional distress and conflict when denied perceived entitlements (REF).

Grandiose and Vulnerable Narcissism overlap in their positive relationship with interpersonal antagonism though are motivated to behave in this manner for different reasons. Miller et al (2011) suggested that those high in Grandiose Narcissism may utilise antagonism for personal gain whereas those high in Vulnerable Narcissism may resolve to interpersonal antagonism as a result of negative schemas. Where these schemas involve the expectation that others will act maliciously and trigger an overly senstive self-protection response, this known as Hostile Attribution Bias (Hansen-Brown & Freis, 2021).

Hostile attribution bias Hostile Attribution Bias refers to a tendency to interpret the beahviour of other people as holding hostile intentions especially when social context cues are ambiguous or unpredictable (Hansen-Brown & Freis, 2021). Persons who have experienced negative childhood experiences are more predisposed influenced by a persistent pattern of hyper vigilance to threat and hostile attribution of intent (Tuente, 2019). Social information processing theory, Hostile Attribution Bias to emerge when negative cognitive schemas and experiences representing others and events become activated because of present negative events triggering conscious or unconscious associations with previous events (Hansen-Brown & Freis, 2021).

There is support in the literature that vulnerable narcissism is strongly related to displays of affective and behavioural relations to potential or perceived threat, with evidence reactions could be driven, in part, by the cognitive appraisals of social interactions (Subra, 2023)

Figure 2. Informative video outlining Borderline Personality Disorder

Machiavellianism vs. Borderline Personality Disorder

We have taken a moment to identify, characterise and delineate two thirds of our vulnerable cluster, what remains is the final member, Borderline Personality Disorder. Borderline Personality Disorder is not theoretically complementary to the third member of The Dark Triad/Tetrad, Machiavellianism (Cutis & Jones, 2020).

Borderline Personality Disorder is what is referred to as a, Cluster B personality disorder. Borderline Personality Disorder defined by a 'pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects, and marked impulsivity that begins by early adulthood and is present in a variety of contexts' (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM (5th Edition).

Borderline Personality Disorder is further characterised by fear of abandonment, interpersonal and affective instability oscillating between idealisation and devaluation, identity impairment (specifically unstable self image), anger, marked impulsivity and self harming behaviours and negative affect (G, 2023** https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12921). Allike Vulnerable Narcism also indicai hostile attaibution bias (Miller, Lynam and Jones 2008)

Aetiology

The vulnerable dark triad members share common aetiological factors. All three members are associated with negative childhood experiences including childhood abuse and neglect, poorer parenting styles (such as ?) and invalidating environments (REF). x (REF) describes such invalidating environments as ones in which the communication of internal experience is met by erratic and inappropraite responses, necessitating (REF) .Early life experiences by children within invalidating environments such as these related to incapacities to identify and regulate emotions, tolerate distress and frustration, and simultaneously learn to present extreme emotional displays to provoke a response from their environment (REF). Noting that theVDT is characterised emotionality, condtioned adaptation. + one sentence on each facet.

- VN indiauls - retrospecivlet report exierince a number of advesr envints in childhoo (REF) + BPD conditoned adaptioatoin

- core BPD

Figure 3. Image depicting young female child alone on staircase

Object relations theory

Object relations theory posits that emotions are intricately intertwined with early object relationships, asserting that our affective experiences and regulation mechanisms are profoundly shaped by the quality of our initial interactions with primary caregivers. It emphasizes the formation of internalized representations or objects, which influence how emotions are perceived, expressed, and managed throughout life. The theory underscores that disruptions or deficiencies in these early relationships can lead to emotional dysregulation, manifesting as difficulties in processing, modulating, or appropriately expressing emotions.

Attachment theory

- Individuals high in VDT seek interpersonal realtinoshiwith other na have otve and goals that inoglve intimatcy and closeness (

Attachment theory in psychology is a framework developed by John Bowlby and expanded upon by Mary Ainsworth that examines the intricate bonds formed between individuals, primarily focusing on the relationship dynamics between children and their primary caregivers. It emphasizes how early interactions and experiences shape an individual's emotional development, social relationships, and overall well-being. This theory highlights the significance of a secure attachment bond between infants and caregivers, suggesting that a consistent and responsive caregiving environment fosters a sense of security and trust in the child, influencing their beliefs about relationships and affecting their behaviors in future interactions. Attachment theory categorizes attachment styles—such as secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent, and disorganized—based on observed behaviors during interactions with caregivers, providing insights into how these early experiences impact an individual's internal working models and relationships throughout life.

Trauma within attachment theory profoundly affects how individuals form connections, often leading to insecure attachment patterns due to experiences like neglect or abuse in early life. This trauma can disrupt the ability to trust others, regulate emotions, and create stable relationships, resulting in difficulties forming a sense of safety and security within intimate connections. It alters perceptions, causing individuals to view the world as unsafe and relationships as unpredictable, impacting their emotional well-being and self-perception

The vulnerable dark triad and basic personality models

(CONTEXT - difficulties in literature - majority do not account for heterogenity within constructs). Five Factor Model (precedes HEXACO) (see table x.). HEXACO (see table x.). Honesty-Humility dimension and remaining of Neuroticism to Emotionality (Ashton & Lee, 2008)* See

Personality Psychology

Trait theory FFM HEXACO VICE

Researchers have argued that this “Dark factor of personality” (or D factor) may be best characterized by low honesty-humility (e.g., Schreiber & Marcus, 2020; but see Horsten, Moshagen, Zettler & Hilbig, 2021

Table Displaying the Five Factors of Personality and Their Associated Facets

Extraversion	Neuroticism	Conscientiousness	Agreeableness	Openness to Experience
warmth	anxiety	competence	trust	imagination
gregariousness	anger	orderliness	morality	artistic interests
assertiveness	depression	achievement-striving	altruism	emotionality
activity level	self-consciousness	self-displine	cooperation	adventurousness
excitement seeking	impulsiveness	deliberation	modesty	intellect
positive emotions	vulnerability	dutifulness	sympathy	liberalism

Vulnerable Narcissism

- Low extraversion, low agreeableness and igh neruoticsm

- more cloesly related to BPD than NPD

- Largest - correlation with turst (agreeable)

- low global self esteem

- VN may behave in hostile and disruful wasy due to heightened dysregulation and negative interpersonal schemas – linked to traumatic childhood eperinces.

- Disagreebablenedd assocaited with regard to distruc of others in part due to hostile attibutaiont - self centredm entitle and envious interpson appraoch

- Lenks of basic perosnity - demosntrats that such trais organsiingfactosf of later psychopatholoy, stangoinsm and disnition undetalike externlisid disorders and neutsm and interoversion underli ma

From a trait perspective, vulnerable narcissism seems to be composed of high levels of Neuroticism and low levels of Agreeableness and Extraversion (e.g., Hendin & Cheek, 1997). In fact, in two samples vulnerable narcissism generated a personality profile on a measure of the FFM that was closer to an expert-rated prototype for BPD (rs=.70 and .78; Miller & Campbell, 2008) than to the expert-rated prototype for NPD (rs=.15 and .43). Vulnerable narcissism scores are also significantly related to BPD symptoms (Miller & Campbell, 2008; Pincus et al., 2009).

Factor 2 Psychopathy

- Negatively related to Conscneitous, agreeableness extravesion and posiiely neutotism (Lynam & Derefinko, 2006) factors can be understood via an examination of the basic personality traits that underlie each factor. For Factor 2, there were significant negative effect sizes for Conscientiousness (r=−.45), Agreeableness (r=−.44), and Extraversion (r=−.12), and a positive effect size for Neuroticism (r=.34).

Factor 2 psychopathy is related to an antagonistic interpersonal style as well as disinhibition and negative emotionalit

Borderline Personality Disorder

- high impuslvitiy

- Overall, there is robust evidence that between-person differences in BPD symptoms are linked to high N and low E, A, and C (Hopwell et al 2022)

From a trait perspective, expert prototypical ratings (Lynam & Widiger, 2001) as well as empirical meta-analyses (e.g., Samuel & Widiger, 2008) demonstrate that BPD can be conceived of as being made up of high levels of Neuroticism, impulsivity, and interpersonal antagonism (i.e., distrustful, noncompliant). In fact, BPD can be assessed using a composite of these FFM traits with as much success as instruments explicitly designed to assess BPD (Trull, Widiger, Lynam, & Costa, 2003). As noted above, BPD is typically substantially correlated with vulnerable narcissism and Factor 2 psychopathy. Interestingly, BPD demonstrates substantial genetic overlap with antisocial personality disorder (Kendler et al., 2008), which is significantly correlated with Factor 2 psychopathy.

- This inclusion stems from the presence of low agreeableness and high neuroticism, as well as elements of impulsivity and interpersonal antagonism, prone to hostiliyu and expect hostility from others (Samuel & Widiger, 2008; Curtis & Jones 2020).

;Summary BPD and vulnerable narcissism have substantial positive correlations with negative emotions of both an internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression, self-consciousness, and vulnerability to stress) and an externalizing nature (angry hostility, impulsiveness). Factor 2 psychopathy is primarily related to acting out/externalizing variants of negative emotions (i.e., angry hostility) (REF).

1 Factor 2 Psychopathy is generally associated with high agreeableness: True False 2 Borderline Personality Disorder is associated with high levels of Neuroticism: True False

Motivation, emotion and the vulnerable dark triad

Emotions are complex but coordinates feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive reaction to the significant events within our lives (textbook page 9). Emotions generate brief attention getting bursts of emergency like adaptive behaviour (Textbook). Emotions as a subset of motivation, Each emotion, features a distinc motivational function, three major mechanisms to generate adaptive motications states - need, cohnyion and emotions. (TEXTbooks). Emotion also provides information to the person experirincing it and may inclue antecdent conii apprais and ongoing cogiion inclfing interpetition of its feeling state, exprssison rososial comunicative signals, and amy invlve moticate apprahc or avoidant behavour exercise scotnrol/ reualtion of response and be social or elationsal in nature. (IZARD, 2010 TEXTBOOK).

Negatice psychological wellbeing

- VDT internalising symtes and dsiordes depression and anitey as well as beahviorual indicators of distress, NSSI or suicidaility. - related to higher levesl of anegative afffect and lower self esterrm

VN engativel orrelated with self reports of psych wellbeing and adults adjusment . VN + despression, anxiety, hostlit and paranoia, NSSI and suciidaitliy. VN + assoicated with treamtnet utilisation

F2P and BPD assocaited with exrenlising beahvious substand abus and antisociat bevhaout

Izard(REF), basic emotioanse serve as bulding blocks for more complex emotions, emotion schemas - after childhoold emotion schecas serce as the orinap moticaiton and regulatory system gor th person heviour and action. Emotion schemas develop out of a dynamic interplay among the basic emotions, cogntive appraisals, and higer order cogntion. basic emotiona combine with cogntion combine to produce compelx emotion schemas. COGNTIVE PERSPECTIVE - Lazurus - witouht an undertaiding of the personal relelvance of an events potnetial impont on perosn welllbeing ther eis no reason to response emotaoninllly. - indicsals cognive appraisl o th emeanifn o an event sets the statee for eomtional experiince

Contextualised within VDT.

• Situationally inappropriate
• COMPLEX appraisal 327
• COGNITIVE-MOTIVATIONAL-RELATIONAL thoery of emotion (LAzarys 1991)
• Emotion differention - phenomenon where peiple can experiince different emotions for the same eventa at difeerent times. emotional differention occurs because differeint peoplea ppraise the same event differently.
• Emotion knowledge 331
• Emotions are intrinsic to interpersonal relationships. Other people not only direcyl cause emotions within us, but they also affec us indirectly thorugh a process called emotional contagion.

Emotional regulation refes to how we try to influence which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experieince and express the emotions we have (GROSS, 2008)*. REVISE 304-305

Defintion of emotional regualtion Difficulties in emotional regulation have been shown to be a risk factor for impulsive aggressive behaviour (REF).

Factor 2 Psychopathy

An understanding emotion reguation strategies utilised by those persons high in Factor 2 Psychopathy presents an opportunity to broaden understandings of emotional deficits (REF). Experience more negative affect showing higher levels of neuroticism and trait anxiety (Mowery, 2010). As individuals high in secondary psychopathy appear unable to regulate their negative emotions, they may use more ineffective processes and less effective processes.

Limitations:

• complicated by multiple theories of psychopathy combined with multiple instruments for measuring psychopathy -

Divergent from the dark triad; people across both triads share antagonism, likely have divergent goals and motications (REF). high DT dismissive or avodant attachemtn - social realtions with others less important than are material and extrinsic succes. VDT seek interpersonal relationshi with others and have motics and goals that involve intiamcy adn closesness (REF). Two divergent types of antagonisim indifference and and hostiliy.

Conclusion

• 200words
• Answer Focus questions
• Dark spectrum

-       The VDT integrates an interpersonally antagonistic core with emotional dysregulation and negative emotionality.

- In sum constructs of VDT are associated with emotional reactivity

Emotional regulation

Vulnerable Dark Triad, comprised of Factor 2 Psychopathy, Vulnerable Narcissism and Borderline Personality Disorder. Combines the ‘Darkness’ (low agreeableness) of the DT with the added facet of emotionally vulnerable traits (high neuroticism)

See also

• Dark tetrad and motivation (Book chapter, 2023)
• Dark tetrad and emotion (Book Chapter, 2023)
• Emotion and the dark triad (Book Chapter, 2020)
• Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour (Book Chapter, 2019)
• Five factor model (Wikipedia)
• Neuroticism (Wikipedia)
• The dark triad (Wikipedia)

References

Curtis, S. R. & Jones, D. J. (2020). Understanding what makes dark traits “vulnerable”: A distinction between indifference and hostility. Personality and Individual Differences, 160(1), 109941-109946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109941.

Gamache, D., Maheux-Caron, V., Théberge, D., Côté, A., Rancourt, M. A., Hétu, S., & Savard, C. (2023). Revisiting the vulnerable dark triad hypothesis using a bifactor model. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 64(5), 679–692. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12921

Hansen-Brown, A. A., & Freis, S. D. (2021). Assuming the worst: Hostile attribution bias in vulnerable narcissists. Self and Identity, 20(2), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2019.1609574

Horton, R. S., Bleau, G., & Drwecki, B. (2006). Parenting Narcissus: What are the links between parenting and narcissism? Journal of Personality, 74(2), 345–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00378.x

Johnson, L. K., Plouffe, R. A., & Saklofske, D. H. (2019). Subclinical sadism and the dark triad: should there be a dark tetrad? Journal of Individual Differences, 40(3), 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000284

Miller, J. D., Dir, A., Gentile, B., Wilson, L., Pryor, L. R, & Campbell, K. (2010) Searching for a Vulnerable Dark Triad: Comparing Factor 2 Psychopathy, Vulnerable Narcissism, and Borderline Personality Disorder. Journal of Personality, 78(5), 1529-1564. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00660.x

Miller, J. D., Hoffman, B. J., Gaughan, E. T., Gentile, B., Maples, J., & Campbell, K. (2011). Grandiose and Vulnerable Narcissism: A Nomological Network Analysis. Journal of Personality, 79(5), 1013–1042. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00711.x

Paulhus, D.L., & Williams, K.M. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36(1), 556–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00505-6

Subra, B. (2023). Why narcissists are more likely to be aggressive? The role of hostile attribution bias. International Journal of Psychology, 58(6), 518–525. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12924

Tuente, K. S., Bogaerts, S., & Veling, W. (2019). Hostile attribution bias and aggression in adults - a systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46(1), 66–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.009

Wai, M. & Tiliopoulos, N. (2012). The affective and cognitive empathic nature of the dark triad of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(7), 794 -799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.008.

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External links

• Borderline personality disorder (Youtube)