Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Unemployment and depression

Unemployment and depression:
What is the relationship between unemployment and depression?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Figure 1. People are commonly adversely impacted from unemployment

Have you ever been unemployed? Do you remember how you felt? Unemployment is the state of not having a job, but being able to, and looking for work. Depression is a diagnosable condition, which has both mental and physical consequences. With unemployment comes many potential issues, of which includes an increased risk to experiencing anxiety, depression, and complications with physical health (Wanberg, 2012). This may also lead to needs not being met, both psychological and physiological in nature. Self-determination theory can help understand the relationship between unemployment and depression, and can help to seek a better understanding of the problems faced by those who are unemployed. Interventions such as goal setting theory, and expressive writing can show what steps can be taken to not only alleviate depressive symptoms, but to thrive moving forward.

“unemployment is a severe risk for public mental health that must be fought with all possible means.” (Paul and Moser, 2016)

Focus questions: How do unemployment depression impact motivation? How could goal-setting help? Why does expressive writing improve health?

The relationship between unemployment and depression

What do people need?

Before investigating the impacts of unemployment, it is first necessary to discuss what needs we have, as a framework for comparison. We have both physiological and psychological needs. Physiological needs are things such as the need for food, water, shelter among others. There are a number of frameworks that aim to explain our needs, such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Alderfer's ERG theory among others. This chapter addresses physiological needs. We have psychological needs as well. These needs can be described using the framework of self-determination theory, which posits the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

What impacts does unemployment have?

Unemployment is both a cause and a contributor of illness (Herbig, Dragano & Angerer, 2013., Paul & Moser, 2016). In a practical sense, there becomes a large increase in the number of other stressors in life when you are unemployed (McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg & Kinicki, 2005). One of course is financial, but even when in receipt of welfare, non-financial problems don’t just go away. As established, we know there is an increase in depression, among other mental and physical ailments. This can be exacerbated due to a lack of structure in daily life if time is not spent in some productive way. A common experience of unemployment is social isolation (Zuelke et al, 2018., Vansteenkiste, Lens, De Whitte & Feather, 2005). With job loss may also come the loss of work-related goals, and a drop in social status. Women are a higher risk of depression than men (Zuelke, et al., 2018). Given the plethora of potential consequences of unemployment it perhaps is not a surprise that when some of these compound, it can very easily put someone onto a downward spiral, leading to the thwarting of the needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. People are often reticent to seek help when experiencing mental health issues when unemployed (Wigand, et al, 2019).

What evidence exists?

Unemployment has long been a topic of interest in the scientific community, with many studies investigating its association with wellbeing, depression, anxiety among many other variables. The topic is of such scientific interest that several meta-analyses have been conducted over the past few decades (Kim & Knesebeck, 2016; McKee-Ryan, et al, 2005; Amiri, 2021). Paul & Moser (2016) investigated the effect of unemployment on mental health in 324 studies, and 458,820 participants , between 1963 and 2004. They comprised ‘mental health’ as a composite of 6 independently measured factors, one of which was depression. A positive relationship was found between unemployment and depression, with a medium effect size of 0.5. Although not everyone will feel an increase in depression when unemployed, it evidently is a common experience. Other meta-analyses have echoed similar findings (Kim & Knesebeck, 2016; McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg & Kinicki, 2005). There are of course individual differences in the experience of unemployment.

Factors influencing the individual experience of unemployment

Researchers have consistently found that length of time unemployed is a contributing factor (McKee-Ryan, et al., 2005; Paul & Moser, 2016). For the first nine months, the longer you are unemployed, the greater the increase in depressive symptoms and illness (Herbig, Dragano, & Angerer, 2013), at which point it tends to stagnate, leaving many at what might be their ‘rock bottom’. Blue collar workers are more distressed than white collar workers (Paul & Moser, 2016). Countries with weaker economic development exacerbate distress of the unemployed, as well as countries with weaker welfare/protection systems, such as when welfare is means-tested (Zuelke, et al., 2018) (as opposed to entitlement based). Male blue-collar workers as the most susceptible to the negative consequences of unemployment. Job search behaviour, however, is related to a better chance of reemployment (McKee-Ryan, et al., 2005).

What our emotions are telling us

No emotion is 'right' or 'wrong' but an indicator about something about the world around us. Each core emotion serves a different function. The function of sadness is to indicate the loss of someone or something important (Izard, 1991). Qe know that when unemployed, it is possible to have an excess of time. If this time is not used well, it may lead to rumination, which may swiftly launch an individual into depression.

Case Study Viktor Frankl Viktor Frankl was an Austrian Psychiatrist and holocaust survivor. In his autobiographical account of his time in Aushwitz, he recounted that those who died sooner where those that lost meaning in their life. Frankl, alongside many others were able to find meaning in their lives despite everything else being stripped from them. Surely then, if meaning can be found within a concentration camp, meaning could also be found when unemployed.

Unemployment, depression, and their impact on motivation

Job search behaviour

An individual's Job search behaviour is an impactful difference in how people experience unemployment. Job search behaviour typically increases the chances of reemployment (McKee-Ryan, et al., 2005; Paul & Moser, 2016; Vansteenkiste, et al., 2005; Vansteenkiste, Lens, De Witte, Witte, & Deci, 2004) and thus reduces the time spent unemployed but is sometimes detrimental to well-being (Wanberg 1997). Looking through the lens of self-determination theory can help us to understand the way people’s job search motivation differs. The type of motivation someone has (see figure 2) is a large individual difference.

Figure 2. The different types of motivation theorised by E.L. Deci and R.M. Ryan in organismic integration theory, a mini-theory of self-determination theory.

Amotivation

Amotivation explains why some people do not search for a job at all (Vansteenkiste et al, 2004). Some may consider searching for jobs to be a futile effort, and that any outcome is out of his or her control. Some research has been shown that a proactive job search can be associated with a decline in mental health, when the individual has low situational control (Wanberg, 1997). If any job searching does happen, it is likely completed in an estranged manner (Vansteenkiste et al, 2004).

Controlled job search

A controlled (or externally regulated) job search motivation is a negative predictor of well-being (Vansteenkiste et al, 2004; Vansteenkiste et al, 2005), and a positive predictor of positive predictor of substandard unemployment experiences. In fact, a controlled job search, opposite to the desired outcome, will not lead to consistent engagement in looking for work. This is not really shocking, no one likes surveillance.

Autonomous job search

Having autonomy when searching for a job tends to have better effects on those who are unemployed (Vansteenkiste et al, 2004; Vansteenkiste et al, 2005). An autonomous job search of course is not guaranteed to lead to a job, and it is highly likely that you will be rejected continually from job applications. Those who are autonomously motivated to search, whether it be out of an interest of applying for jobs, or because it is perceived as something of personal importance (see Figure 2), fared less negatively. Autonomous motivation to search does not improve well-being, but it will keep some of the negative aspects of continual rejection at bay. This includes lower reported feelings of social isolation, and worthlessness.

Locus of control

Martin Seligman's 1967 experiment 'Failure to escape traumatic shock' led to his theory of learned helplessness (1975). Learned helplessness can be applied to adults in the failure to respond in an effective way when presented with difficulty. This is described as an external locus of control, or an amotivated states, whereas people who have an internal locus of control perceive that their actions are not futile. This is also the case with job searching (Wanberg, 1997; Vansteenkiste et al., 2004). There is great difficulty in applying for jobs, as it is highly likely that you will be rejected from opportunity after opportunity, so it's no wonder some people feel as though their job search efforts are meaningless. This is the case for most people when looking for work, and it is not a moral wrongdoing on the part of the unemployed person. In fact, interventions that alert people to this are helpful in minimising the affects of continual rejection, and increases the chances of reemployment (Vinokur, Price, & Schul, 1995).

What can we do about it

Building resilience through writing

There are several ways in which writing can help. Although not restricted to unemployed people, it is certainly applicable to them. Two types of beneficial writing are goal setting, and expressive writing. These are both practical ways to improve health and positive emotion, and are practical options considering they are free, and provide a structured way for time to be used.

A brief note on perception Before considering goals, it's important to first consider the role of perception. We know that when we have too many choices we become confused (Park & Jang, 2013). While it is true that you are free to do anything, you can't be everything, so it is important to pick a direction. It's not as though you can never change your aim either. It's known in the scientific literature on perception that you see what you aim at (See 'Do the awareness test' under external links) and that the language you use impacts how you see the world around you (Winawer, et al., 2006).

Goal setting

Goal setting is a practical step that can be taken by anyone to help move forward. Latham & Locke's goal setting and task performance theory (1990) has been provided with a lot of support within the scientific community, it has now long been known that goals can be useful. Choosing a goal will allow you to see the pathway towards the goal. Of course, the goal needs to be set properly. Realistic, specific and relatively difficult goals are best (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Earley, Wojnaroski & Prest 1987). In line with self-determination theory, goals in which are self-concordant with intrinsic motives are better too, as you'll actually work towards them if they're in like with your values and desires (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Deci, E., & Fujita, F. 1995). Positive emotion is not felt in achieving a goal, but in movement towards it (Schultz, 2000). So just by writing some goals down with a pen and paper, you reduce your anxiety, and should then be able to determine some reasonable actions to take toward your goal, increasing positive emotion. This positive emotion may come in the forms of dopamine, serotonin, among other beneficial neurotransmitters from our reward system (Schultz, 2000).

Expressive writing

Another form of writing that can alleviate depressive symptoms is expressive writing (Pennebaker & Beall, 1986). In the short-term, you'll feel worse, but over a longer period of time (1 week to 3 months depending on the depth of trauma you are writing about) you will feel much better. It requires an individual to write about something personally stressful or traumatic. For expressive writing to work effectively, it needs to be personal and emotional. Much research has since been conducted on the topic of expressive writing, and has now demonstrated that writing about prior traumatic events improves physical and psychological wellbeing (Pennebaker & Beall 1986; Pennebaker 1997; Pennebaker & Seagal 1999), and is also cross-culturally applicable.

Expressive writing is applicable in the case of unemployment. A study by Spera, Buhrfeind & Pennebaker (1994) took advantage of 63 engineers who had been laid off, and found that those who wrote about losing their job and associated emotions lead to faster re-employment when compared to the control group. The most effective writing was found to use more words indicative of understanding and comprehension (Pennebaker 1986). Even if you don't write about becoming unemployed, expressive writing is still beneficial, even if you write about a fictional trauma. Expressive writing has shown increases in positive emotion, increased immune system function, and less physician visits over a 2 year period. In essence, expressive writing is a form of therapy.

Read about the initial experiment in a sample chapter of "Opening up by writing it down"

1 Writing about past events can assist psychological & physical health:

	True
	False

2 Writing is a suitable substitute for seeing the doctor:

	True
	False

Try it yourself! You may like to write about something that is bothering you. If you choose to do so, write without stopping for 15 minutes. Don't worry about grammar or spelling. This could be something relevant to you now, such as procrastination or an upcoming exam. Write about your deepest thoughts and feelings on this topic - how do you feel about your tendency to procrastinate, are you anxious for that upcoming exam? How did you feel immediately after writing? How about after a day or two?

Conclusion

Unemployment can lead to sadness and subsequently depression, and a further downward spiral, and thwarting of psychological needs. Self-determination theory helps to understand the relationship between unemployment and depression. This understanding allows insight into multiple practical solutions to improve quality of life and alleviate depression when unemployed. There has long been support for interventions that prepare an unemployed person to face continual rejection. Job searching is a structured way to spend time, which will lead to less time spent ruminating. Setting goals allows a clear pathway forward, movement towards goals leads to an increase in positive emotion. Expressive writing may contribute directly to re-employment, but otherwise is a useful way to spend excess time, as it leads to improved psychological and physical health over the long run. Engagement in these provides not only the absence of negative emotions, but presence of positive emotions and various physiological benefits. The individual is able to apply these easily to improve his or her life, as they are not resource intense. The broader community may also benefit from these, and is of practical significance to therapists.

See also

• Self determination theory (Wikipedia)
• Unemployment and mental health (Book chapter, 2022)
• Unemployment and motivation (Book chapter, 2014)

References

Amiri, S. (2021). Unemployment associated with major depression disorder and depressive symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 28. 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2021.1954793

Deci, E., & Fujita, F. (1995). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237–288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Earley, P. C., Wojnaroski, P., & Prest, W. (1987). Task planning and energy expended: Exploration of how goals influence performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(1), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.72.1.107

Herbig, B., Dragano, N., & Angerer, P. (2013). Health in the long-term unemployed. Deutsches Arzteblatt international, 110(23), 413–419. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2013.0413

Izard, C. E. (1991). The psychology of emotions. Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0615-1

Kim, T.J., von dem Knesebeck, O. Perceived job insecurity, unemployment and depressive symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 89, 561–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-015-1107-1

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice–Hall.

Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. (1976). Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 105(1), 3–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3

McKee-Ryan, F., Song, Z., Wanberg, C. R., & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Psychological and physical well-being during unemployment: A meta-analytic study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(1), 53–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.53

Park, & Jang, S. (2013). Confused by too many choices? Choice overload in tourism. Tourism Management, 35, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.05.004

Paul, K. I., & Moser, K. (2016). Unemployment impairs mental health: Meta-analyses. In G. J. Boyle, J. G. O'Gorman, & G. J. Fogarty (Eds.), Work and organisational psychology: Research methodology; Assessment and selection; Organisational change and development; Human resource and performance management; Emerging trends: Innovation/globalisation/technology (pp. 285–319). Sage Publications, Inc.

Pennebaker, J. W. (1997) Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8, 162–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00403.x

Pennebaker, J. W., & Beall, S. K. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95(3), 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.95.3.274

Pennebaker, J. W., & Seagal, J. D. (1999). Forming a story: The health benefits of narrative. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(10), 1243–1254. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199910)55:10

Pennebaker, J., & Smyth, J. (2016). Opening Up by Writing It Down, Third Edition: How Expressive Writing Improves Health and Eases Emotional Pain. United States of America: The Guilford Press

Schultz, W. Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1, 199–207 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1038/35044563

Seligman, M. E., & Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024514

Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot. J. A., (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and Longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of personality and social psychology, 76 (3), 482-497

Spera, S. P., Buhrfeind, E. D., & Pennebaker, J. W. (1994). Expressive Writing and Coping with Job Loss. The Academy of Management Journal, 37(3), 722–733. https://doi.org/10.2307/256708

Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., De Witte, H., & Feather, N.T. (2005). Understanding unemployed people's job search behaviour, unemployment experience and well-being: A comparison of expectancy-value theory and self-determination theory. The British journal of social psychology, 44(2), 268–287. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466604X17641

Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., De Witte, S.D., Witte, H.D., & Deci, E.L. (2004). The 'why' and 'why not' of job search behaviour: Their relation to searching, unemployment experience, and well-being. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 345–363. https://doi.org/10.1002/EJSP.202

Vinokur, A.D., Price, R.H. & Schul, Y. (1995) Impact of the JOBS intervention on unemployed workers varying in risk for depression. American Journal of Community Psychology 23, 39–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02506922

Wanberg C. R. (1997). Antecedents and outcomes of coping behaviors among unemployed and reemployed individuals. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(5), 731–744. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.82.5.731

Wanberg C. R. (2012). The individual experience of unemployment. Annual review of psychology, 63, 369–396. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100500

Wigand, M. E., Oexle, N., Waldmann, T., Staiger, T., Becker, T., & Rüsch, N. (2019). Predictors of help-seeking in unemployed people with mental health problems. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 65(7–8), 543–547. https://doi-org/10.1177/0020764019868262

Winawer, J., Witthoft, N., Frank, M., Wulund, L., Wade, A., & Boroditsky, L (2007). The Russian blues reveal effects of language on color discrimination. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104. 7780–7785. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701644104.

Zuelke, A. E., Luck, T., Schroeter, M. L., Witte, A. V., Hinz, A., Engel, C., Enzenbach, C., Zachariae, S., Loeffler, M., Thiery, J., Villringer, A., & Riedel-Heller, S. G. (2018). The association between unemployment and depression- Results from the population-based LIFE-adult-study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 235, 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.04.073

External links

• Man's search for meaning (Full audiobook)
• Opening up by writing it down: Sample Chapter (James W. Pennebaker and Joshua M. Smyth. 2016)
• Do the awareness test [YouTube]
• Self-determination theory