Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/To-do lists

To-do lists:
Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Scenario Figure 1.To-do lists on paper, a common quick way to jot down tasks that need to be completed As the week begins, you make your to-do list (see Figure 1), check off the items on Monday, and keep up the good work on Tuesday. However, as the week progresses, your desire and motivation wane, and your list remains unchecked. When Friday arrives, you suddenly realise how many tasks you still haven't finished, and questions start to pour in. Why didn't I finish them? Why did I allow myself to disregard what needed to be done?

The to-do list is a commonly used household technique that has been a staple for organisation and goal setting for all ages. Whether people write them on the back of a piece of paper (see Figure 1) or they have an electronic version on their mobile electronic device, everyone has attempted them at one point or another. To-do lists are a tool used to unload thoughts about what needs to be done with the goal of increasing productivity (Schrager, 2022). To-do lists can be beneficial in keeping order, ensuring the completion of tasks and assignments, and handing in or paying things on time. As humans strive for organisation, whether this is chaotic or precise, humans will continue to aim to have things planned and organised (Allen, 2012). But what is the most effective way to achieve this? Exploration of the exploring the pros and cons of to-do lists, and applying changes to utilise psychological theories and studies in order to learn and produce an effective way of using to-do lists as a goal.

Below, explores the theories of motivation to see if they can effectively motivate individuals to start ticking off those blank boxes. Theories such as Self-efficacy in gamification, the Zeigarnik effect and information possessing theory to assist in exploring this. There are so many ways to create to-do lists, and they are used universally around the world, and people have used them for years. They are commonly used in schools, homes and workplaces and can not just be used individually but communally as a team input.

Focus questions Does motivation play a link in achieving to-do-lists? Do the pros of the to-do lists outweigh the cons? Do the theories mentioned help individuals to know how to use to-do lists more effectively to live more motivational lives?

To-do lists: The what, who and why?

In the sections that follow below, we explore what to-do lists are, who uses them, why we depend on them, and how they are typically utilised, giving us a starting point from which to determine whether or not they are beneficial. Lists have been utilised throughout the history of civilisation, including in the ancient, mediaeval, early modern, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, as well as today. (Contzen,2016).

Figure 2: Portrait of Leonardo Di Vinci, a engineer, theorist and scientist who relied on the use of lists to complete his work (Usher,2014)

People who are notable for the use of to-do lists -

• Umberto Eco (Thellefesen, 2017)
• Thomas Edison (Edison,2011)
• Leonardo Di Vinic (Usher,2014), as seen in Figure 2, a common user of the to-do lists.
• Ronald Regan (Reagan,2011), he was of the opinion of “I have always lived my life by making lists—lists of people to call, lists of ideas, lists of companies to set up, lists of people who can make things happen. Each day, I work through these lists, and that sequence of calls propels me forward.” (Reagan,2011)

What are to-do list and what are they used for?

To-do lists are used for the aim to achieve tasks required usually one that needs to be done in a timely manner. They are commonly used to assist in compartmentalising daily life, in the hopes of reducing forgetfulness and avoidance of tasks, with the aim of achieving the tasks, as well as to reduce psychological concerns such as stress/anxiety. In day-to-day life these to-do lists can assist in bringing order into lives, keep humans organised and ensure that their executive functioning skills are working at a productive level, helping to identify the needs at hand, and the tasks required to find a starting point to get to an end result. (Contzen, 2016)

Figure 3: A visual bullet journal

Types of to-do lists

• On paper; stuck on the fridge, on post it notes or even on a communal desk pad (Schrager, 2022)
• Electronic list; calendar, emails, shared to do list apps (Schrager, 2022)
• Bullet Journal; personal version of to-do lists, see figure 3 for a visual example (Schrager, 2022)

Who and why do some people rely on them?

Anyone can, and many people find them a reliable life resources in their daily life. However, people who need assistance may have cognitive or working memory issues, such as people with ADHD and other learning difficulties find having a step-by-step checklist of what to do assists in ensuring what needs to occur can get completed. (Riall, 2022) Children can also be regular used of to-do lists, whether its made by a parent or any other important authority figure they can help in a child's developmental stages such as their executive functioning skills, making visual to-do lists with children, and teaching modelling them how to use them can provide a stepping stone in aiding in developing their executive functioning skills and motivation to complete tasks on time (Becker,2007)

Pros and cons

Investigation of the pros and cons of to-do lists and and analysing the impacts can assist in individuals using to-do lists in an effective manner and why individuals use them. Can assist in researchers and individua's learn how to use them productively and understand what motivated us to use them and why they continue to be a technique individual use to keep track of what they need to do.

Pros	Cons
1.Cognitive overload, to-do lists and breaking this down, reducing the information and setting out what needs to be completed into realistic tasks (APA 2023)	1.Cognitive overload, too much on the list can be overwhelming and therefore, nothing gets done. (APA 2023)
2.Decrease anxiety (Schragar, 2022)	2.Overload of the to-do lists, task switching not completing (Wickens, et al., 2013)
3.Limited cognitive capacity and immediate memory, being able to write down and track tasks/goals. (Miller,1994)	3.Paper lists - lose them (Schragar,2022)
4.Writing what you need to do helps to unburden your brain and, therefore, increase productivity (Schragar, 2022)	4.Electronic lists, do not have the same physical satisfaction of crossing the list. (Schragar, 2022)
5.Eliminated intrusive thoughts through the use of writing and crossing to-do lists (Schragar, 2022)	5.An individuals personality can change the effectiveness of to-do lists. (Wang & Lee,2022)
6.Personal satisfaction in their life, the feeling of accomplishment when crossing off the list and completing tasks, therefore more productive (Schragar, 2022)	6. Environmental and social factors can impact the effectiveness of to-do lists. (Cerasoil, et al., 2014)
8.. Writing a to-do list before sleep can assist in falling asleep sooner and alleviating worries, the below study explores this (see case study 1)

Case Study 1: "The Effects of Bedtime Writing on Difficulty Falling Asleep: A Polysomnographic Study Comparing To-Do Lists and Completed Activity Lists." by Michael K. Scullin, Madison L. Krueger, Hannah K. Ballard, Natalya Pruett and Donald L. Bliwise. Hypotheses: "Writing about the future will lead to increased worry over unfinished tasks, thereby increasing sleep onset latency, relative to journaling about completed activities" Alternative hypotheses: " Writing a to-do list will "off-load" those thoughts from consciousness, and thereby decrease sleep onset latency, relative to journaling about completed activities" Study:Healthy Adults (pre-screened for sleep conditions and other neurological disorders.) N=57 (was N=60, but three were excluded) ages 18-30 recruited at Baylor Uni, multinight Sleep study. Randomly assigned into two groups, either to-do lists or completed lists. Overnight Polysomnography and other devices in a sound attenuated sleep research lab, Participants were monitored and scored by a registered polysomnography technician, given a questionnaire that measured "stress, enjoyment of cognitive arousal, difficulty remembering future tasks and completed tasks, and self-reported sleep the night before the study". Bedtime occurring at 22:30 is derived from other studies as an average congruent time. Results: To-do lists fell asleep significantly more quickly than those who wrote a completed list, theory from this study concluded it reduced anxiety and depression, through expressive writing. The study also explains how writing, especially our worries, which can be what we need to do, is linked to cognitive insomnia studies as a remedy for sleep. However, the researchers felt that the question of latency is still to be concluded. Therefore, rejecting the hypotheses and accepting the alternative hypotheses. Limitations: The sample size is small, a larger sample size will produce individual differences. The measure of a person's anxiety/depression and measures of cognitive arousal/worry was not investigated (Scullin, et al., 2017).

Psychological studies and theories

Investigation theories and studies to explore ways and why they are effective. In using to-do lists effectively research methods can be broken down into two primary sections the motivational theories and their relationships in linking the ability to completion of tasks. The cognitive brain process on its ability to compartmentalise, remember and function to complete tasks written down on to-do lists coming from theories such as the Zeigarnik effect and and cognitive switching. As well as our psychological personal choices and brains choices to decided and complete what is required, through self efficacy theory and assistance from theories that can be used to assist in completion such as gamification.

Motivation and its relationship with to-do lists

Motivation is impacted by internal and external factors, this can change the level of motivation an individual will have to accomplish tasks at hand. If the environmental conditions are an ideal situation this can correlate with a positive motivational impact, as well as lead to a positive emotional feeling (Cerasoil, et al., 2014). Freud is one theorist who speaks about the topic of drive theory in the factors that drive our motivation to complete the task at hand (Carel, 2016). When looking at to-do lists and motivation, there are many theories that can explain why some individuals are motivated to do write them and not complete them and some to write and complete them. The Heming Way effect is one of these, this theory explores the level of importance a person places on each task and the level of motivation they are willing to expel on it (Oyama, et al., 2018). when a task has presented itself if it is of importance it will be completed however under this theory if it is not at a high level of importance and not of benefit to complete then it is placed to the side and an individual may find it hard to be motivated to complete it and the task can go uncompleted or can take long periods of time to complete. This same theory also suggests that if the task was perceived to be of high reward/importance and the outcome eased the opposite or it was easy and quick to complete then the individual is less motivated to repeat that task again (Oyama, et al.,2018).

To-do lists are sometimes relative and in relation to the hemming way effect can end up being left to complete later, never getting crossed off. important factors that correlate with this effect on the completion of lists are if they have a high importance to the individual, if they are quick to complete or if they seem achievable to the induvial   . Scientifically the cortical role is responsible for sending messages to the subcortical which controls the brain's motivation and emotion levels and therefore impacts and influences our behaviour and choices. Case study 2 explores the brain's response and willingness to apply effort to complete the goal. Our brain's willingness to physically want to achieve and our behavioural desire to achieve the goal (Patrick,2021) Therefore, the brain has a role in our motivation to complete to-do lists.

Case Study 2: "Local and distributed cortical markers of effort expenditure during sustained goal pursuit" by Lauren M. Patrick, Kevin M. Anderson and Avram J. Holmes. A study was conducted to see how the brain tracks in an effort to willingly use effort to gain a reward that is of momentary gain. using 35 participants, aged between 18-35, the participants had to complete tasks for each task they completed they earned $0.25 and each time they chose not to they lost $0.25. Proving that with the right motivational incentive, tasks are likely to be completed. However, there were limitations in this study that the incentive was not variable, if the incentive was variable this may change the results (Patrick, et al., 2016).

Theory of Self-efficacy and learning, Albert Bandura analysis's the Individuals' ability to at a high level accomplish what is required or what challenges they perceive they need to overcome. Therefore, being able to recognise that they are capable and able to complete tasks at hand and then it correlates to high self-efficacy and motivation to continue on and complete all and more. In an individual's self-efficacy, one is able to learn and acquire skills with motivation, belief and control. In relation to to-do lists, high efficacy assists in the motivation of individuals' ability to peruse and confidently achieve the tasks they set. (Fulton 2019) Gamification and self-efficacy correlate together and using these theories have motivators such as avatars, leader boards, award/point systems, and environment is game-like (Fulton, 2019). Using games in an environment that initially did not include the use of games, such as when studying, in a learning or a work setting. (Fulton, 2019) Gamification became an integral part of modern day theory from the lack of motivation from humans to complete tasks and the rise in gaming/electronic use, consuming our time. Technology itself is only the tool we use, but gamification is the learning design that has been created as an area of development to achieve goals of learning and discipline to achieve tasks. (Fulton 2019) This has then spiralled into many ways we use this platform of gaming to achieve our goals in many areas, from tracking our exercises and diet to teaching in a classroom, ensuring we study and complete our tasks at hand and so on. Increase the effectiveness by turning the to-do lists into a game or interactive panel and becoming great for children, great for ADHD and other learning difficulties to complete and achieve tasks required (Raill, 2021)

• Apps such as
  • Asana
  • Study buddy

Cognitive process of to-do lists

Following on from our cortical role on motivation there are studies done on the cognitive process of to-do lists. George A. Miller's theory of information processing theory- focusing on how much your cognitive brain can store, is vital when it comes to the effectiveness of compression of tasks at hand and therefore our capacity to store the tasks needed to be completed (Miller 2003). Cognitive control is one of the studies as outlined and used as a theory base in case study 3, in which our brain's ability to control what's important and choose what tasks is to be completed and ignore other environmental factors and control what is required to be completed. In regards to the completion of tasks at hand, this is vital to ensure that individuals can achieve the goal at hand.

Case Study 3: "Modelling cognitive control in task-switching" by Nachson Meiran This study investigated cognitive control when aiming to achieve a goal with the hypothesis that "The same stimuli invoke different actions in different situations" (Merian, 2000). The study consisted of 24 participants and looked at cognitive control in task-switching, reaction time, errors and results. The participants were required to locate a target with cues and responses recorded. Four independent variables were examined, task switch, response repetition, cue-target interval and congruency during this experiment. Concluding that with all the independent variables the participants were still able to achieve the target goal, in a reasonable time to a near-perfect or perfect response rate. However, some limitations to this study was that the mathematical formulation concerns on whether it can strongly support the test and results and the relationship between the verbal description in coherence with the mathematical questions for this study. (Meiran, 2000)

Zeigarnik effect is another cognitive process that plays a role in ensuring that tasks that are unfinished are completed, it is viewed as our brains way of nagging us. This effect was a theory Bluma Zeigarnik a psychologist that related this theory (Burke, 2011) and is defined as "The Tendency for interrupted tasks, in some circumstances, to be recalled better than completed tasks" (Colman,2015). Therefore this effects view is that if things come undone, we tend to remember them until we complete them. (Burke,2011)

Case Study 4: Remembering and Regretting: The Zeigarnik Effect and the Cognitive Availability of Regrettable Actions and Inactions by Kenneth Savitsky, Victoria Husted Medevec and Thomas Gilovich A phone study of 114 participants were done to asses there regrets of in action in alignment with analysing the Zeigarnik effect. The results found that yes when individuals have had periods on inaction they have feeling of regret an this there fore causes them to brought back up to the surface an action to be taken. (Savitsky et al., 1997)

Using to-do list effectively

So, with all this being said, how can a to-do list be used effectively?

Analysing the study's and theories above incentives play a huge role in the effectiveness of individuals completing and being motivated enough to achieve the tasks and tick off there to do lists (Cerasoil, et al., 2014) In order for to-do lists to be effective for you, you need to trial and error different types to find the best that suits you. As well as create more manageable lists with only a goal of a limited achievable amount per day. (Schrager, 2022) Depending on the individuals the types of to-do lists can factor in to the percentage of completion, with todays modern day society, utilising the theory of gamification and refereeing to case study 5, using apps and the important constant use of technology can benefit and be productive in motivation of archiving tasks (Wang & Lee, 2022.)

Case Study 5: A holistic research on how to-do lists are more software online based today than the traditional pen and paper. Its focus on ensuring productivity and focusing on individual values and well-being, not just a quantitative measurement. This study by Marx Wang and Sang Won Lee focused on creating a system to achieve this. They had three main goals for their design Emotional rating- the ability to provide emotional feedback, such as how stressed they feel, using a 5-point scale using a visual interactive display. Time-based deadline- vague time intervals in brackets, if they are overdue, the program asks to reschedule. In the hope of increasing their motivation for them to want to complete, creating a positive correlation. Planning performance/emotional experience visualization. A visual plot graph on their progress and emotional ratings to help them have an understanding of how they work as an individual for further planning. Currently, Marx and Wang are still fixing up step 3 and conducting their study with participants. They aim to do this over two weeks to measure the psychological and perceptive changes in the individual's productivity and well-being. Using software like this takes the organisation process out of creating to-do lists they make them simple and accessible for all and appeal to the modern generation, being an effective way for many individuals to achieve their goals. (Wang & Lee, 2022)

Using to-do lists effectively we can use the theories and techniques written about above. From ensuring that we are able to find what motivates us thorough using tools that we ad a individual work well with, whether it is a bullet journal personal to themselves or if its is a app based on the theory of gamification.

Poll

Please feel free to take part in a poll on the use of to-do lists and discover the results on how others use them:

• To-do list Poll

Conclusion

To-do lists, used as a way to keep track on tasks and to ensure that individuals don't forget what's important. Motivational theories such as Hemmingway effect where the level of importance is key, to the theory self-efficacy were accomplishment is required to ensure that the list gets ticked of. With motivation being crucial the cognitive brain playing the other vital role to ensure that to-do lists can be used effectively, theories such as cognitive control, ensuring we can stay on task to get what is important done and the Zeirgarnik effect a cognitive process of ensuring that our brains doesn't let us forget what we need to do . These go hand in hand with our motivational theories to ensure that individual can discover a effective way to use to-do lists in a productive manner.

So does, motivation play a link in achieving to do lists, when it comes to the theories and studies, of drive theory, hemming way effect, self-efficacy and gamification, motivation is proved as important role in the ability to tick of those lists and for to-do lists to become a productive use of organisation. Do the pros outweigh the cons, when analysing the pros and cons, it comes down to the individual and there cognitive brain and motivational levels on if to-do lists will be effective for them, so in answering this question it is not necessary if the pros outweigh the cons, but more how the cons and even the pros can be manipulated to be used effectively for the best result. Lastly do the theories help individuals to use to-do lists, if research is done and the theories applied, an individual could manipulate to advance in a more effective use of organisation, however it takes an individual with motivation to achieve this.

To-do lists and there effectiveness greatly depend on the individual, the use of them and the level of importance the tasks are to the individual and if an individual has an incentive to complete the task required.

Take-home messages Before bed, on your phone or in a journal, list all the things you need to do. You might be surprised how much this will improve your sleep and help your tomorrow.

See also

• Achievement goal theory (Book chapter, 2020)
• Avoidance motivation (Book chapter, 2013)
• Goal Setting (Book chapter,2013)
• Organization (Wikipedia)
• Procrastination (Book chapter, 2011)
• Self-efficacy (Wikipedia)
• Time management (Book chapter, 2023)
• Urgency bias and productivity (Book chapter,2020)
• Zeigarnik effect (Wikipedia)

References

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2023). Dictionary.apa.org. https://dictionary.apa.org/cognitive-overload

Baumeister, R. F., & Tierney, J. (2011). Willpower. Penguin.

Beker, H. (2007, November). On the agenda - ProQuest. Www.proquest.com. https://www.proquest.com/docview/232898568/fulltext/8F5626B7FE64DE6PQ/1?accountid=28889

Burke, W. W. (2010). A Perspective on the field of organization development and change. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 47(2), 143–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886310388161

Carel, H. (2006). One: Freud’s drive theory - ProQuest. Www.proquest.com. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1013196323/fulltextPDF/A865FB484DA34831PQ/1?accountid=28889

Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 980–1008. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035661

Colman, A. M. (2015). A dictionary of psychology (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Fulton, J., & Howard, W. (2019). RUNNING HEAD: THEORY OF GAMFICATION Theory of Gamification -Motivation. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED607091.pdf

Marx Boyuan Wang, & Sang Won Lee. (2022). TaskScape: Fostering holistic view on to-do list with tracking plan and emotion. Virginia Tech Works (Virginia Tech). https://doi.org/10.1145/3526114.3558720

Masicampo, E. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2011). Consider it done! Plan making can eliminate the cognitive effects of unfulfilled goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(4), 667–683. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024192

Meiran, N. (2000). Modeling cognitive control in task-switching. Psychological Research, 63(3-4), 234–249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004269900004

Miller, G. A. (2003). The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(3), 141–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00029-9

Oyama, Y., Manalo, E., & Nakatani, Y. (2018). The Hemingway effect: How failing to finish a task can have a positive effect on motivation. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 30, 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2018.01.001

Patrick, L. M., Anderson, K. M., & Holmes, A. J. (2021). Local and distributed cortical markers of effort expenditure during sustained goal pursuit. NeuroImage, 244, 118602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118602

Reagan, R. (2011). The Notes LP. Harper Collins.

Riall, D. (2022). The autism resource manual : practical strategies for teachers and other education professionals. Routledge.

Rubinstein, J. S., Meyer, D. E., & Evans, J. E. (2001). Executive control of cognitive processes in task switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27(4), 763–797. https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-1523.27.4. 763

Savitsky, K., Medvec, V. H., & Gilovich, T. (1997). Remembering and Regretting: The Zeigarnik effect and the cognitive availability of regrettable actions and inactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(3), 248–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297233004

Schrager, S. B. (2022). Improving time management through modern-day to-do lists. Family practice management, 29(1), 5–6. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35014773/

Scullin, M. K., Krueger, M. L., Ballard, H. K., Pruett, N., & Bliwise, D. L. (2018). The effects of bedtime writing on difficulty falling asleep: A polysomnographic study comparing to-do lists and completed activity lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(1), 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000374

Wickens, C. D., Santamaria, A., & Sebok, A. (2013). A computational model of task overload management and task switching. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 57(1), 763–767. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931213571167

External links

1. Albert Bandura on Behaviour therapy, self-efficacy and modelling video (YouTube, Albert Bandura, 2014)
2. Reagan, R. (2011). The Notes LP. Harper Collins.
3. Thomas Alva Edison. (1989). The Papers of Thomas A. Edison: New beginnings, January 1885-December 1887. John Hopkins University Press.
4. Torkild Thellefsen, & Bent Sørensen. (2017).Umberto Eco in his own words. De Gruyter Inc.
5. Usher, S. (2014). Lists of note. Canongate
6. Zeigarnik effect podcast (PodBean, Dr Joe)