Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting 2

Episodic future thinking and delay discounting:
What is the relationship between EFT and DD?

Overview edit

Figure 1: Scenario - Resisting Temptation and Forward thinking

Imagine ... the future moment of buying a new car when making monetary choices or of an upcoming meal when being tempted by readily available snacks.[Provide more detail]

Episodic future thinking (EFT) and delay discounting (DD) encompass concepts associated with human decision-making and cognitive processes, particularly with regard to how individuals navigate choices involving time and outcomes (Guo et al. 2022). Despite their distinct nature, these concepts are frequently studied in conjunction due to their interlinked role in comprehending how people measure immediate versus future rewards (Guo et al. 2022).

Balancing present and future perspectives involves understanding two critical cognitive processes: EFT and DD. EFT enables individuals to construct potential future scenarios using past experiences and current knowledge, while DD leads to valuing immediate rewards over delayed rewards. Recognising the exchange between these processes helps us to understand how people navigate the trade-off between immediate gratification and long-term benefits.

These cognitive mechanisms have significant implications for decision biases and impulsivity. EFT supports long-term planning, goal setting, and considering future consequences, while DD tends to drive impulsive choices by prioritising instant rewards. Understanding this interaction sheds light on the origins of impulsive actions and suboptimal decision-making.

Exploring the neural processes associated with EFT and DD is crucial. EFT activates the prefrontal cortex and involves vivid mental simulations of future events, while DD is linked to brain regions responsible for assessing reward value and impulsivity. Exploring these neural foundations provides insights for developing techniques to improve self-control and improve decision-making capacity.

Practical applications and interventions can be developed through this knowledge. EFT has the potential to reduce DD by vividly envisioning the future outcomes of decisions. Interventions that encourage a forward-thinking focus can effectively manage DD tendencies. These insights have broad implications for addressing addiction, planning, health-related behaviours, and enhancing long-term outcomes across various areas.

This chapter addresses the relationship between EFT and DD. Five focus questions guide this discussion:

Focus questions:

What is EFT and what makes it different from other forward thinking methods?
How do the different components in EFT collaborate [grammar?] to help people imagine future situations and events?
What is DD and how does it affect decision making biases?
To what extent do factors such as reward size, length of delay and individual differences affect a person’s tendency to discount future rewards?
What are some practical ways to improve EFT and reduce the impact of DD?

Introduction to episodic future thinking and delay discounting edit

Understanding EFT: processes and mechanisms edit

Figure 3: visualising future events

EFT is a cognitive process characterised by several key mechanisms. First and foremost, EFT involves cognitive projection, where individuals build and manipulate mental representations of future scenarios (Guo et al, 2022). Additionally, EFT enhances prospective encoding, refining how future events are encoded into an individual's memory (Guo et al, 2022). This mechanism helps individuals anticipate and remember future experiences more effectively. Another crucial aspect of EFT is self-continuity, which involves forging connections between one's past, present, and future selves (Guo et al, 2022; Shacter et al., 2018). This interconnectedness nurtures motivation and aligns one's goals (Guo et al, 2022; Shacter et al., 2018). Understanding these processes and mechanisms sheds light on how EFT plays a significant role in shaping our thoughts, actions, and goals.

How do the different componments[spelling?] in EFT collaborate to help people imagine future situations and events? edit

The collaborative cooperation of various components within EFT contributes significantly to the capacity of individuals to envision future scenarios and events. Event reconstruction, which involves the ability to reconstruct previous events, plays a pivotal role in mentally constructing future scenarios by employing similar cognitive mechanisms (Madore et al, 2016). Temporal contextualisation, facilitates the association of events with a temporal sequence, providing coherence and context for visualising future events (Madore et al, 2016). Furthermore, emotional integration within these future scenarios amplifies their authenticity and motivational impact. Event specificity ensures that future events are represented in detail, while considering their temporal context, further enhancing coherence (Madore et al, 2016). Finally, the emotional valence of envisioned events not only influences motivation but is also beneficial in strategic planning, collectively shaping the complex process of visualising and preparing for the future (Madore et al, 2016; Lin Epstein 2014).

Neural underpinnings of EFT edit

The neural underpinnings of EFT reveal a complex interaction of brain networks. One crucial component is the intrinsic network, which becomes engaged during EFT and assists in processes related to autobiographical memory and envisioning future events (Peters & Büchel 2010). Another integral network involved is the frontoparietal network, which is associated with cognitive management and contributes significantly to the construction of future scenarios (Peters & Büchel 2010). These networks work collaboratively to facilitate our ability to imagine and plan for the future. Additionally, memory systems play a fundamental role, with the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe serving as key players in the retrieval and projection of episodic memories (Guo et al, 2022; Bromberg et al.,2017).

Cognitive functions supported by EFT edit

EFT serves as a cognitive tool that supports various essential functions of the mind. Firstly, it facilitates goal setting by enabling individuals to visualise and plan for long-term and future goals (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). Secondly, EFT contributes to the practice of delayed gratification, as it allows individuals to project the delayed consequences of their actions, thereby reducing impulsivity and promoting more thoughtful decision-making (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). Lastly, EFT emphasises problem-solving capabilities by providing mental practice opportunities that intensify strategic planning (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). EFT supports and enhances numerous cognitive functions crucial for effective decision-making and goal achievement.

Role in long-term planning and goal-setting edit

EFT plays a pivotal role in long-term planning and goal setting, offering a multifaceted approach to achieving desired outcomes. Motivation alignment is a significant aspect of this role, as EFT bridges the gap between current actions and desired future results (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). Additionally, EFT facilitates temporal extension, allowing individuals to extend their focus beyond immediate rewards and gratification, thereby supporting the foundation of effective long-term planning (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). Furthermore, EFT promotes behavioural consistency by encouraging individuals to maintain steady and purposeful behaviours that are in line with their future goals and objectives (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). EFT serves as a valuable cognitive tool that aids individuals in navigating the complexities of long-term planning and goal setting by aligning motivations, extending temporal horizons, and prmoting[spelling?] consistent, goal-directed behaviour (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015).

Exploring DD: Biases and influences edit

When exploring the phenomenon of DD and its inherent biases and influences, several key factors come into play. Temporal discounting reveals that individuals tend to subjectively assign a higher value to immediate rewards compared to postponed ones (van et al, 2013). This preference for immediate gratification often shapes decision-making processes. Additionally, magnitude sensitivity plays a significant role, as more substantial rewards experience a less pronounced devaluation over time compared to smaller ones (van et al, 2013). These findings provide a clearer understanding of how time and the size of rewards interact in the cognitive processes involved in DD.

To what extent do factors such as reward size, length of delay and individual differences affect a person's tendency to discount future rewards? edit

[Provide more detail]

Factors affecting DD edit

The extent to which individuals discount future rewards is influenced by several key factors, including the size of the reward, the length of the delay, and individual differences[grammar?]. When considering these factors, reward scale plays a significant role, as larger rewards tend to undergo less rapid devaluation, highlighting how the size of the reward influences decision-making. The length of the delay also comes into play, as longer waiting periods result in more substantial devaluation, showcasing impatience and affecting the value of postponed rewards. Furthermore, individual differences play a crucial role, with varying degrees of impulsiveness and self-discipline among individuals impacting their predisposition for DD. The factors of reward size, delay length, and individual characteristics contribute to the complexity of how people assess and discount future rewards and the nature of decision-making processes.

Figure 4: The ventral striatum becoming active

Neurobehavioral underpinnings of DD edit

The neurobehavioral foundations of DD are closely tied to specific brain circuitry and their functions. Impulsivity, a key aspect of DD, involves the interaction of neural regions such as the ventral striatum and prefrontal cortex (van et al, 2013). When individuals seek instant gratification, the ventral striatum becomes active, solidifying its role in processing instant rewards as seen in figure 3 (van et al, 2013). In contrast, self-control and the ability to resist impulsivity are linked to the prefrontal cortex, which helps regulate impulsive behaviour and aids in evaluating the value of postponed rewards (van et al, 2013). These neurobiological insights demonstrate the complex mechanisms underlying DD, offering a deeper understanding of how the brain processes and balances immediate and future rewards in decision-making processes.

Implications for decision-making edit

Understanding the implications of DD for decision-making is crucial in various contexts. DD can introduce a short-term bias in decision-making, where individuals may tend to favour immediate rewards over more beneficial long-term ones. (Burns et al. 2021). Furthermore, the interaction between EFT and DD can create internal conflicts during the decision-making process, potentially influencing the choices individuals make (Burns et al. 2021). However, there is a silver lining, as behavioural interventions are strategies that are developed to mitigate impulsive decisions and encourage more thoughtful, goal-aligned decisions (Burns et al. 2021). Therefore the importance of recognising and addressing the influence of DD on decision-making processes is recognised as it ultimately leads to more informed and beneficial decision making.

The relationship between EFT and DD edit

Figure 5: Mechanisms collaborating to influence decisions and behaviours

The relationship between EFT and DD demonstrates a complex interaction that significantly influences decision-making processes. EFT plays a pivotal role in rebalancing the equilibrium between immediate and delayed rewards often observed in DD (Raichle 2015). It offers an intervention potential, suggesting that strengthening EFT can effectively mitigate impulsive inclinations, thereby facilitating more considered and goal-aligned decisions (Raichle 2015). This relationship between EFT and DD impacts decision-making, particularly in situations involving temporal aspects, emphasising the multifaceted nature of how these cognitive mechanisms collaboratively influence our choices and behaviour as seen in Figure 4 (Raichle 2015; Shacter et al., 2018).

What are some practical ways to improve EFT and reduce the impact of DD? edit

There are practical approaches to enhance EFT and mitigate the influence of DD. One method is through mental time travel exercises, which involve individuals in guided mental exercises focused on envisioning future events. This practice has been shown to improve EFT skills (Benoit & Schacter 2015). Another approach is prospective memory training, which helps individuals cultivate their ability to recall and plan for future actions, thus stimulating future-oriented cognition (Benoit & Schacter 2015). Additionally, reward delay framing can be effective by emphasising the long-term advantages of delayed rewards, through reducing the impulsivity often associated with DD (Benoit & Schacter 2015).

Promoting EFT to mitigate DD edit

Promoting EFT appears as a valuable approach to mitigating the impact of DD on decision-making processes. Behavioural interventions, such as training EFT skills, have been shown to enhance future-oriented thinking (Raichle 2015). Cognitive strategies, such as fostering mental time travel, help in valuing delayed rewards and encourage individuals to consider long-term benefits (Raichle 2015). Taking a holistic approach by combining EFT-focused interventions with DD reduction strategies has also proven to be effective in addressing impulsive decision-making tendencies (Raichle 2015). These multifaceted approaches emphasise the potential of EFT as a tool for promoting more thoughtful and goal-aligned choices while minimising the influence of DD.

Key research edit

Empirical evidence has consistently highlighted the intricate relationship between EFT and DD. Behavioural studies have demonstrated a clear connection, indicating that individuals with higher proficiency in EFT tend to exhibit reduced levels of DD (Guo et al, 2022). Neuroimaging studies have further verified this link by revealing shared neural pathways involved in the interaction between EFT and DD (Guo et al, 2022). Additionally, intervention studies have shown that DD biases can be diminished by developing skills in EFT (Guo et al, 2022). These empirical findings collectively highlight the significance of EFT in understanding and potentially mitigating the impact of DD on decision-making processes.

Figure 6: MRI of medial temporal lobe

Key research findings have emphasised the complex relationship between EFT and DD. It is theorised that EFT functions work to decrease DD by stimulating the cognitive representation of delayed rewards, making them more prominent and vivid, thereby facilitating their accessibility (Peters & Büchel, 2010; Benoit et al., 2011). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have pinpointed the neural processes underlying EFT, predominantly within the medial temporal lobe (MTL), including the hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex, as well as areas such as the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), posterior cingulate cortex, and lateral temporal and parietal regions linked to the default mode network as shown in Figure 6 (Benoit and Schacter, 2015; Raichle, 2015; Stawarczyk and D'Argembeau, 2015; Schacter et al., 2017). The hippocampus' role is particularly important in constructing detailed and vivid future events (van Mulukom et al., 2013; Szpunar et al., 2014; Madore et al., 2016), a connection supported by recent voxel-based morphometry (VBM) studies linking grey matter volume in the hippocampus to the level of detail and vividness in EFT (Yang et al., 2020). This neural overlap between EFT and the brain regions associated with DD, including the MTL suggests a liekly[spelling?] neural connection between EFT and DD (Peters and Büchel, 2010, 2011; Yang et al., 2020).

Importantly, research suggests that interventions aimed at promoting EFT can have a significant impact on decision-making by reducing DD tendencies (Guo et al. 2022). Encouraging individuals to vividly imagine positive future outcomes resulting from their decisions can lead to more patient and forward-thinking decisions (Guo et al. 2022). These findings collectively emphasise the complex relationship between EFT and DD, offering valuable insights into the neural and cognitive processes underlying these phenomena and their potential role in decision-making and behavioural interventions.

Conclusion edit

The relationship between EFT and DD plays a pivotal role in influencing how we make decisions. EFT encourages people to visualise and establish a connection with their future goals and aspirations. This, in turn, helps them make choices that are in line with their desired future outcomes and counteracts the proclivity for impulsive decision-making associated with DD. By understanding this connection, we can gain valuable insights into strategies for improving the quality of our decisions, maintaining motivation, and ensuring that our actions align with long-term goals. Ultimately, this approach paves the way for more successful and gratifying future decision making.

References edit

Benoit R. G., Gilbert S. J., Burgess P. W. (2011). A neural mechanism mediating the impact of episodic prospection on farsighted decisions. J. Neurosci. 31, 6771–6779. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6559-10.2011

Benoit R. G., Schacter D. L. (2015). Specifying the core network supporting episodic simulation and episodic memory by activation likelihood estimation. Neuropsychologia 75, 450–457. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.06.034

Bromberg, Lobatcheva, M., & Peters, J. (2017). Episodic future thinking reduces temporal discounting in healthy adolescents. PloS One, 12(11), e0188079–e0188079. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188079

Bromberg, Wiehler, A., & Peters, J. (2015). Episodic Future Thinking Is Related to Impulsive Decision Making in Healthy Adolescents. Child Development, 86(5), 1458–1468. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12390

Burns P., O'Connor P. A., Atance C., McCormack T. (2021). More later: delay of gratification and thought about the future in children. Child Dev. 92, 1554–1573. doi: 10.1111/cdev.13521

Guo, Wu, H., Li, Z., Zhao, L., & Feng, T. (2022). Episodic future thinking predicts differences in delay discounting: The mediating role of hippocampal structure. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 992245–992245. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.992245

Lin, H., & Epstein L.H. (2014). Living in the moment: Effects of time perspective and emotional valence of episodic thinking on delay discounting. Behavioral Neuroscience, 128(1), 12-19. http://doi.org./10.1037/a0035705

Madore K. P., Szpunar K. K., Addis D. R., Schacter D. L. (2016). Episodic specificity induction impacts activity in a core brain network during construction of imagined future experiences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 113, 10696–10701. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1612278113

McCue R., McCormack T., McElnay J., Alto A., Feeney A. (2019). The future and me: imagining the future and the future self in adolescent decision making. Cogn. Dev. 50, 142–156. doi: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2019.04.001

Peters J., Büchel C. (2010). Episodic future thinking reduces reward delay discounting through an enhancement of prefrontal-mediotemporal interactions. Neuron 66, 138–148. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.026

Peters J., Büchel C. (2011). The neural mechanisms of inter-temporal decision-making: understanding variability. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 227–239. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.03.002

Raichle M. E. (2015). The brain's default mode network. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 38, 433–447. doi: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-071013-014030

Shacter, D.L., Benoit, R.G., & Szpunar, K.K. (2018). Episodic Future Thinking: Mechanisms and Functions. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 17, 41-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.06.002

Stawarczyk D., D'Argembeau A. (2015). Neural correlates of personal goal processing during episodic future thinking and mind-wandering: an ALE meta-analysis. Hum. Brain Mapp. 36, 2928–2947. doi: 10.1002/hbm.22818

Szpunar K. K., St. Jacques P. L., Robbins C. A., Wig G. S., Schacter D. L. (2014). Repetition-related reductions in neural activity reveal component processes of mental simulation. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 9, 712–722. doi: 10.1093/scan/nst035

van Mulukom V., Schacter D. L., Corballis M. C., Addis D. R. (2013). Re-imagining the future: repetition decreases hippocampal involvement in future simulation. PLoS One 8:e69596. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069596

Yang Y., Chen Z., Zhang R., Xu T., Feng T. (2020). Neural substrates underlying episodic future thinking: A voxel-based morphometry study. Neuropsychologia 138:107255. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107255

External links edit

Future thinking (TEDx)
The psychology of your future self (TEDx)

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