Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Actively open-minded thinking

Actively open-minded thinking:
How can AOT be used to improve human performance?

Overview edit

Figure 1. Garrett Camp, co-founder and chairman of Uber

In the winter of 2009, Garrett Camp found himself waiting for a taxi on a frosty night in the city of Paris. Instead of succumbing to the common frustration that often accompanies such situations, Camp's curiosity took hold of his thoughts. As he waited in the cold, watching the snow fall, he embarked on a mental journey that would reshape the way people think about transportation globally. Camp envisioned a revolutionary concept: What if you could summon a driver using nothing more than your smartphone? This seemingly simple idea was, in fact, a groundbreaking departure from conventional mindset and thinking patterns. With determination and innovation, Camp transformed this vision into reality, creating Uber, a company that would go on to become the largest and most influential ridesharing platform around the world. In the process, he not only disrupted an entire industry but also exemplified how questioning the status quo and embracing a curious, open-minded approach can lead to extraordinary innovation and transformative change. Garrett Camp's story serves as a testament to the power of actively open-minded thinking and the potential for extraordinary ideas to emerge from everyday moments.

Everyone thinks they are open-minded. In reality, our confirmation bias makes it challenging to accept and understand different perspectives. Our mindset dictates the thinking pattern which in turn creates a routine thought process. Actively open-minded thinking (AOT) is a tool to break free from conventional mindsets and explore the power of creativity and objectiveness. AOT is a psychological concept evolved from one’s willingness to consider alternate options, reflective thought, and how evidence opposing current beliefs is managed (Stanovich & Toplak, 2023).

Focus questions:

What is AOT?
How do motivated reasoning and AOT impact human performance?
What is the relationship between AOT and human performance?

Understanding actively open-minded thinking edit

Imagine a life where the opinions, thoughts and values you formed as a youth, remain with you for a lifetime. The ability to actively think with an open-mind, assess the validity of information, or have a progressive discussion with someone whose views oppose yours, are critical contributions to a positive human performance.

It is encouraged that as individuals and as members of society, we each learn to assess information from both ends, to right our wrongs, and welcome new knowledge with an open mind. AOT is an important thinking disposition, first introduced by Baron in 1985; it encompasses the desire to act from good will, the ability to foster reflective processes, and the seeking out and discerning of information that may oppose former beliefs. Initially developed as a means to combat bias, AOT has developed into a way of thinking that can dramatically increase psychological well being. By fostering an open-minded approach towards novel ideas and diverse perspectives, individuals can cultivate essential components of emotional intelligence, such as empathy, self-awareness, and social adeptness. Furthermore, this not only enhances the ability to navigate interpersonal relationships more effectively, but also contributes significantly to building emotional resilience and overall well being.

Introduced by Baron (1991), AOT is described as a theoretical concept of an ideal standard of thinking which avoids the tendency to find reason in initial beliefs, and instead seek out and actively consider evidence contrary to initial belief, or ideals founded in motivational reasoning. AOT is initially described as a cooperative stance of thinking, where all arguments are considered fairly, thus, the strongest and fairest argument shall prevail (Barron, 1991). It is suggested by Barron (1991) that AOT could lead to the development of prescriptive beliefs about thinking, which would benefit society as a whole, and improve the human performance.

AOT involves several cognitive processes aimed at critically engaging with information. These cognitive processes collectively contribute to an individual's ability to actively engage with diverse perspectives, make well-informed decisions, and develop a more open-minded and thoughtful approach to complex issues. These processes include:

Critical Thinking: Analysing and evaluating information, arguments, and evidence objectively. This process helps individuals assess the credibility and validity of various perspectives.
Information Gathering: Actively seeking out information from multiple sources, both those that align with one's existing beliefs and those that oppose them. This process involves research, reading, listening, and exploring different viewpoints.
Empathy: Understanding and considering the emotions and experiences of others is a crucial component of AOT. It involves putting oneself in someone else's shoes to better appreciate their perspective.
Reflection: Individuals are encouraged to reflect on their own beliefs and biases. This involves introspection to identify and acknowledge one's preconceived notions and potential bias.
Comparative Analysis: Comparing and contrasting different perspectives and arguments. This requires individuals to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of each side to make informed judgments.
Objective Evaluation: Evaluating evidence and arguments based on their merit rather than personal biases or emotions. This requires a commitment to fairness and impartiality.
Critical Engagement: To engage in respectful and constructive dialogue with people who hold opposing views. This process involves active listening, asking questions, and presenting counter arguments when necessary.
Decision-Making: After considering various viewpoints and evidence, individuals practicing AOT make informed decisions or form opinions that are grounded in a thoughtful analysis of the available information.
Adaptibility: A willingness to adapt one's beliefs or opinions when presented with compelling evidence or persuasive arguments that challenge pre-existing beliefs.

“[AOT] is ‘open-minded’ because it allows consideration of new possibilities, new goals, and evidence against possibilities that already seem strong. It is ‘active’ because it does not just wait for these things but seeks them out” - Baron (2008, p.200)

AOT and motivated reasoning edit

Figure 2. Simple example of how learnt conventions build cognitive bias, resulting in responses formed from habit

Motivated reasoning Define term is not confined to any specific domain; it manifests itself in various aspects of life, including politics, science, religion, and social expectations. People often employ motivated reasoning to uphold their political ideologies, defend their scientific convictions, adhere to their religious faiths, or conform to societal norms and expectations. This highlights the omnipresent nature of motivated reasoning in human cognition, exemplifying the need for strategies like AOT to foster more objective and rational decision-making processes across societies.

Motivated reasoning is the processing of information that is subconsciously skewed to support an individual’s pre-existing beliefs, yielding bias (Kunda, 1990; Lodge & Taber, 2013). This results in individuals scrutinising evidence opposing their beliefs in a far more critical manner than information which supports their pre-existing beliefs (Lodge & Taber, 2013; Nyhan & Reifler, 2010; Redlawsk, 2002). Motivated reasoning and AOT are opposites in that the former stimulates bias, while the latter actively seeks to remove bias. The introduction of AOT can play a crucial role in mitigating motivated reasoning by encouraging individuals to engage in a more impartial and open-minded assessment of information, considering all perspectives in a fair and balanced manner.

AOT is a cognitive approach with a substantial influence on human performance. It is a combative tool against the natural tendency of motivated reasoning and bias, creating an environment in which the strongest and fairest argument or concept will prevail. By fostering an open-minded approach towards novel ideas and diverse perspectives, individuals can develop essential components of emotional intelligence, such as empathy, self-awareness, and social adeptness. This, in turn, contributes to building emotional resilience and overall well-being. Individuals also develop key cognitive processes essential for innovation, the ability to comparatively and objectively analyse and assess new information. AOT is theorised to have two processes: increased sourcing of adverse information, and actively pursuing analysis and processing of such information. AOT is distinct from other open mindedness concepts as it involves the active pursuit of information that may disconfirm prior beliefs, rather than merely the acceptance that there may be counter evidence. Those with an AOT thought process, consider why their information may not be completely accurate, or could hold bias, and genuinely consider altering pre-existing beliefs when provided with knowledge to justify this change. Where motivated reasoning is skewed by the unconscious bias, AOT is the antithesis, a conscious process of removing bias from one's pre-existing beliefs.[factual?]

Case study - How pre-existing beliefs may impact the extent of AOT on different topics

It is 2017, and two University of Canberra students, Jordan and Eric, have seen videos supporting the 'YES’ vote for same-sex marriage equality in Australia.

Jordan, as a queer person, who hopes to one day marry the love of their life, agrees with this video strongly and continues scrolling, feeling content about the quality of their feed. Over dinner with their partner that evening, Jordan mentions the video and how it argued for same-sex marriage equality, and their partner wholeheartedly agrees.

Down the street, Eric has seen the same video viewed by Jordan earlier in the day. Eric is an LGBTQI+ ally, though decides to visit the page presenting the video. He looks at their previous posts, the amount of followers, and continues researching the topic on safari. He delves into the ‘NO’ campaign and thinks deeply about the points made.

Although Jordan and Eric held pre-existing beliefs that same-sex marriage should be legalised and equal in their country, and both left their experience with the video holding the same belief, Eric displays an actively open mind as he researches and openly contemplates the counter argument against his beliefs.

Ultimately, the votes from 2017 showed a strong support in the ACT[explain?], with 74% voting ‘YES’. Whilst this is one example of the use of AOT, there are many points in life when we all must make decisions, or vote, with an impact on those around us. The ability to hold an open mind, and actively seek out information from both sides of an argument to determine which response is most appropriate and for the benefit of ourselves as individuals, as well as our community and nation, impacts our collective human performance. AOT is a tool aiding individuals like Eric, to ascertain information, relevant to our views as well as contradictory, and hold reflective thought upon making decisions.

AOT and human performance edit

In 1928, Alexander Fleming saw a mouldy cantaloupe and through his AOT, rather than turning away in disgust, he leaned into the unknown and examined closer. Fleming created from a piece of mouldy fruit, what is now known as the “single greatest victory over disease” (Bennett et al., 2001), penicillin. AOT fosters critical thinking, information gathering and objective analysis. These techniques enhance individual’s[grammar?] ability to engage with diverse perspectives, developing open-minded and thoughtful approaches to complex issues. This collection of cognitive processes ultimately improves human performance on individual, societal and even global levels. AOT, a psychological concept founded in the willingness and active pursuit of knowledge and evidence both supporting and opposing pre-existing beliefs, can have a profound impact on human performance.[factual?]

Figure 3. USDA's penicillin research team, June 1944

AOT results in a fair evaluation of arguments and evidence as bias is removed from pre-existing beliefs (Mellers et al., 2015). It's a way of thinking that doesn't rely on how smart you are (such as IQ) but on actively trying to remove biases. It is suggested that individuals with high AOT produce increased effort for analysing and considering evidence contrary to pre-existing beliefs (Baron, 1993; Haran, Ritov, & Mellers, 2013; Stanovich & West, 1997). Opposingly, the lower AOT an individual possesses, the more likely they are to dismiss evidence contrary to beliefs, spend increased time defending their beliefs, and do not seek out knowledge and information against their pre-existing beliefs. The removal of bias in the processing of information results in the strongest and fairest decision. However, as Baron (2008) emphasises, utilising AOT only changes one’s beliefs if it is warranted. Having an AOT mindset doesn't immediately make beliefs change; instead, it makes people put in more effort to gather information that could lead to changes in their beliefs. Baron (2008) states, “fairness to other possibilities than the one we initially favour”, it is not predetermined that beliefs should change upon harnessing AOT. Where the motivational goal is to acquire accurate beliefs, then change shall only occur where an individual’s analysis of information predicts belief change to be towards the most accurate belief. Ultimately, this improves the human performance on individual and societal levels.

AOT is a cognitive approach with a substantial influence on human performance. AOT is a combative tool against the natural tendency of motivated reasoning and bias, creating an environment in which the strongest and fairest argument or concept will prevail. By fostering an open-minded approach towards novel ideas and diverse perspectives, individuals can develop essential components of emotional intelligence, such as empathy, self-awareness, and social adeptness. This, in turn, contributes to building emotional resilience and overall well-being. Individuals also develop key cognitive processes essential for innovation, the ability to comparatively and objectively analyse and assess new information. Where motivated reasoning is skewed by the unconscious bias, AOT is the antithesis, a conscious process of removing bias from one's pre-existing beliefs. Conclusively, AOT strongly influences the power of creativity and innovation.[factual?]

“[AOT] enhances the proficiency of reasoning aimed at forming identity-congruent beliefs” - (Kahan & Corbin, 2016, p. 3).

Conclusion edit

AOT\ is a way of thinking that helps to make better decisions and understand things more clearly. With AOT, individuals learn to think carefully and not just believe everything one hears or reads. AOT also encourages consideration of different ideas and opinions. Instead of sticking to just one way of thinking, listen to what different people have to say. It helps to make fair choices by deciding based on what's true and right, not just what one wants to believe. Being open-minded is a big part of AOT. It means a willingness to change your mind if something new is learnt.

The impact of AOT on human performance is substantial, promoting critical engagement with information, encouraging the exploration of diverse perspectives, and enabling well-informed decisions devoid of bias. Consequently, this contribution fosters a society of individuals characterized by objectivity and impartiality, which in turn influences their decision-making and beliefs. AOT encourages individuals to critically engage with information, seek out diverse perspectives, and make well-informed decisions based on merit rather than bias. It increases the effort put into analysing evidence contrary to pre-existing beliefs, leading to a fairer evaluation of arguments and evidence. Ultimately, it results in improved human performance on both individual and societal levels.

In a world where information is readily accessible, and beliefs often shape our decisions and actions, actively open-minded thinking becomes an invaluable tool. It empowers individuals to navigate the complex landscape of opinions and ideas, fostering a more thoughtful, open, and objective approach to decision-making. Garrett Camp’s journey of creating Uber, and Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin, serve as examples to how breaking from conventional mindsets and thinking patterns can enhance creativity and contribute to extraordinary innovations. AOT can serve as a catalyst for ground-breaking ideas and positive societal change, echoing the legacies of individuals like Garrett Camp and Alexander Fleming who dared to think differently and, in doing so, left an indelible mark on the world. AOT is not merely a theoretical concept but a powerful driver of positive change in society.

References edit

Baron, J. (1985). Rationality and Intelligence. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511571275

Baron, J. (1991). Beliefs About Thinking. In J.F. VOSS. D.N. Perkins. & J.W. Segal (Eds.). Informal reasoning and education. pp. 16-186. Hillsdale. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

Baron, J. (1993). Why Teach Thinking?-An Essay. Applied Psychology, 42(3), 191–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1993.tb00731.x Baron, J. (2008) Thinking and Deciding. 4th edn. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Bronstein, M.V. et al. (2019) ‘Belief in fake news is associated with delusionality, dogmatism, religious fundamentalism, and reduced analytic thinking’, Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 8(1), pp. 108–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.09.005

Haran, U., Ritov, I., & Mellers, B. A. (2013). Actively Open-Minded Thinking Scale--Short Form. PsycTESTS Dataset. https://doi.org/10.1037/t41728-000

Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480

Lodge, M., & Taber, C. (2013). Vol. 78, 2014 of The Public Opinion Quarterly on JSTOR. Www.jstor.org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/i24545945

Mellers, B., Stone, E., Atanasov, P., Rohrbaugh, N., Metz, S. E., Ungar, L., Bishop, M. M., Horowitz, M., Merkle, E., & Tetlock, P. (2015). The psychology of intelligence analysis: Drivers of prediction accuracy in world politics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 21(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000040

Mirhoseini, M. et al. (2023) ‘Actively open-minded thinking is key to combating fake news: A multimethod study’, Information & Management, 60(3), p. 103761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2023.103761

Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2

Pennycook, G. et al. (2020) ‘On the belief that beliefs should change according to evidence: Implications for conspiratorial, moral, paranormal, political, religious, and science beliefs’, Judgment and Decision Making, 15(4), pp. 476–498. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500007439

Piazza, J. and Landy, J.F. (2013) ‘“Lean not on your own understanding”: Belief that morality is founded on Divine Authority and non-utilitarian moral judgments’, Judgment and Decision Making, 8(6), pp. 639–661. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1930297500004691

Redlawsk, D. P. (2002). Hot Cognition or Cool Consideration? Testing the Effects of Motivated Reasoning on Political Decision Making. The Journal of Politics, 64(4), 1021–1044. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2508.00161

Stanovich, K.E. and West, R.F. (1997) ‘Reasoning Independently of Prior Belief and Individual Differences in Actively Open-Minded Thinking.’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(2), pp. 342–357. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.89.2.342

Stanovich, K.E. and West, R.F. (2007) ‘Natural Myside Bias is Independent of Cognitive Ability’, Thinking & amp; Reasoning, 13(3), pp. 225–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546780600780796

Stanovich, K.E., West, R. and Toplak, M.E. (2016) 'The rationality quotient: Toward a Test of Rational Thinking'. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Stanovich, K.E. and Toplak, M.E. (2023) ‘Actively Open-Minded Thinking and its Measurement’, Journal of Intelligence, 11(2), p. 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11020027

Stenhouse, N. et al. (2018) ‘The potential role of actively open-minded thinking in preventing motivated reasoning about controversial science’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 57, pp. 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.06.001

External links edit

Do I Really Have to be Actively Open-Minded? (Psychology Today)
How to be Open-Minded and Why it Matters (Very Well Mind)
Are you open minded? Paul Sloane TedX (YouTube)