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WikiJournal of Medicine/Dyslexia/XML

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     <title>Dyslexia</title>
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Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulty learning to read and spell.         Underlying deficits typically include impaired phonological awareness (an awareness of the sound structure of words) and processing; difficulty with verbal working memory; and slow verbal processing speed.   Observable problems include frequent spelling errors that same-age children do not exhibit; difficulty learning how to decode individual words, including "sounding out" words; and struggling to pronounce words correctly and fluently when reading aloud. Deficits in reading comprehension often occur as a secondary consequence.    Dyslexia is a heterogeneous disorder, which means that not all people with dyslexia have the same signs, symptoms, underlying deficits, or functional impairment. Children and adults with dyslexia exhibit higher rates of comorbid conditions such as developmental language disorders; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD);       and difficulties with motor coordination, mental calculation, concentration, and personal organization, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia. Dyslexia manifests on a continuum of severity—it is a dimensional disorder.     People with this disorder have a normal desire to learn.          Dyslexia is believed to be caused by both genetic and environmental factors, and their interaction.   Dyslexia often runs in families.   Dyslexia that develops subsequent to a traumatic brain injury, stroke, or dementia is usually called ''acquired dyslexia''.   The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia are problems within the brain's language processing.   Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, spelling, and reading skills.   Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by hearing or vision problems or by insufficient teaching or opportunity to learn.    Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.   While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms.   Treatments targeting vision are not effective.   Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world.   It affects 3–7% of the population,     however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.
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  1. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. "dyslexia, n. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012 ("a learning disability specifically affecting the attainment of literacy, with difficulty esp. in word recognition, spelling, and the conversion of letters to sounds, occurring in a child with otherwise normal development, and now usually regarded as a neurodevelopmental disorder with a genetic component.")
  2. ↑ Woollams, Anna M. (2014-01-19). "Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 369 (1634): 20120398. doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0398. ISSN 0962-8436. PMID 24324241. PMC PMC3866427. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2012.0398. 
  3. ↑ Sir Jim Rose, Identifying and Teaching Children and Young People with Dyslexia and Literacy Difficulties (An independent report from Sir Jim Rose to the Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families, 2009).
  4. ↑ Webster's Third New International Dictionary. "dyslexia, noun". Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016 ("a variable often familial learning disability involving difficulties in acquiring and processing language that is typically manifested by a lack of proficiency in reading, spelling, and writing").
  5. ↑ Longe, Jacqueline L., ed. "Dyslexia". Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. 3rd ed. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2006. ISBN 9781414403687 ("Dyslexia is a learning disorder characterized by problems in processing words into meaningful information. This is most strongly reflected in difficulty in learning to read.")
  6. ↑ Moll, Kristina; Göbel, Silke M.; Gooch, Debbie; Landerl, Karin; Snowling, Margaret J. (May 2016). "Cognitive Risk Factors for Specific Learning Disorder: Processing Speed, Temporal Processing, and Working Memory". Journal of Learning Disabilities 49 (3): 272–281. doi:10.1177/0022219414547221. PMID 25124507. https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/43639/1/Moll_Cognitive.pdf. 
  7. ↑ "Dyslexia - Symptoms". nhs.uk. 15 August 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
  8. ↑ Moura, Octávio; Pereira, Marcelino; Alfaiate, Cláudia; Fernandes, Eva; Fernandes, Boavida; Nogueira, Susana; Moreno, Joana; Simões, Mário R. (March 2017). "Neurocognitive functioning in children with developmental dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Multiple deficits and diagnostic accuracy". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 39 (3): 296–312. doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1225007. PMID 27617883. 
  9. ↑ Araujo, Alexandra Prufer de Queiroz Campos (2012). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia: a history of overlap". Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria 70 (2): 83-84. doi:10.1590/S0004-282X2012000200001. 
  10. ↑ Sexton, Chris C.; Gelhorn, Heather L.; Bell, Jill A.; Classi, Peter M. (November 2012). "The Co-occurrence of Reading Disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, Treatment, Psychosocial Impact, and Economic Burden". Journal of Learning Disabilities 45 (6): 538–564. doi:10.1177/0022219411407772. PMID 21757683. 
  11. ↑ Fletcher, Jack M. (July 2009). "Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept". Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 15 (4): 501–508. doi:10.1017/S1355617709090900. PMID 19573267. PMC 3079378. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3079378/. "... international epidemiological studies have shown that dyslexia is dimensional and exists as the lower end of a normal continuum of reading ability" 
  12. ↑ Snowling, Margaret J. (January 2013). "Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view". Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs 13 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x. PMID 26290655. PMC 4538781. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4538781/. "In short, dyslexia is not a clear-cut diagnostic category. Rather, in keeping with other neurodevelopmental disorders that affect learning, it can be thought of as the behavioural outcome of a multiple risk factors, both genetic and environmental. It is also increasingly recognised that dyslexia co-occurs with other disorders; in particular, many children with dyslexia have language impairments, symptoms of inattention, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and problems of motor coordination. This nuanced view of dyslexia as a dimension that has continuities and comorbidities with other disorders has significant implications for contemporary theory and practice. (p. 4 of author's copy on PMC) (citations omitted)" 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "NINDS Dyslexia Information Page". National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. National Institutes of Health. 11 September 2015. Archived from the original on 27 July 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  14. ↑ Thompson, Paul A.; Hulme, Charles; Nash, Hannah M.; Gooch, Debbie; Hayiou‐Thomas, Emma; Snowling, Margaret J. (2015). "Developmental dyslexia: predicting individual risk". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 56 (9): 976–987. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12412.  ("Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder which runs in families; the consensus view for many years has been that it is the behavioral outcome of an underlying phonological deficit.").
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 "What are reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Peterson, Robin L.; Pennington, Bruce F. (May 2012). "Developmental dyslexia". Lancet 379 (9830): 1997–2007. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6. PMID 22513218. PMC 3465717. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3465717/. 
  17. ↑ "How are reading disorders diagnosed?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  18. ↑ "What are common treatments for reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  19. ↑ Handler, SM; Fierson, WM; Section on, Ophthalmology; Council on Children with, Disabilities; American Academy of, Ophthalmology; American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and, Strabismus; American Association of Certified, Orthoptists (March 2011). "Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision.". Pediatrics 127 (3): e818–56. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-3670. PMID 21357342. 
  20. ↑ Umphred, Darcy Ann; Lazaro, Rolando T.; Roller, Margaret; Burton, Gordon (2013). Neurological Rehabilitation. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 383. ISBN 978-0-323-26649-9. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170109173020/https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383. 
  21. ↑ Kooij, J. J. Sandra (2013). Adult ADHD: Diagnostic assessment and treatment (3rd ed.). London: Springer. p. 83. doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-4138-9. ISBN 9781447141389. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160430012545/https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83. 
  22. ↑ "How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  1. ↑ This article is about developmental dyslexia, i.e., dyslexia that begins in early childhood,[1] as opposed to acquired dyslexia. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of developmental disorder, but acquired dyslexia is a substantially different condition, generally requiring different assessment strategies and different treatment approaches than developmental dyslexia.[2]
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