WikiJournal Preprints/Tunisian Arabic: Normalized Orthography and Morphology
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Abstract
Tunisian Arabic has five types of pronouns: personal, possessive, demonstrative, indirect object and indefinite pronouns.[1][2] Unlike in Standard Arabic, there is a unique pronoun for the second person singular and a unique pronoun for the second person in plural.[1][3] Furthermore, there are three types of articles: definite, demonstrative and possessive articles.[1][2] Most of them can be written before or after the noun.[1][3]
As for verbs, they are conjugated in five tenses: perfective, imperfective, future, imperative, conditional present and conditional past Tenses and in four forms: affirmative, exclamative, interrogative and negative forms.[1][3] They can be preceded by modal verbs to indicate a particular intention, situation, belief or obligation when they are conjugated in perfective or imperfective tenses.[1][3] Questions in Tunisian Arabic can be āš (wh question) or īh/lā (yes/no question).[1][2]
The question words for āš questions can be either a pronoun or an adverb.[1][2] As for negation, it is usually done using the structure mā verb+š.[1][3]
There are three types of nouns that can be derived from verbs: present participle, past participle and verbal noun. There are even nouns derived from simple verbs having the root fʿal or faʿlil.[1][3] The same is true in Standard Arabic. Tunisian Arabic also involves several prepositions and conjunctions.[1][2] These structures ultimately derive from those of Standard Arabic, even if they are radically different in modern Tunisian because of heavy influence from Berber, Latin and other European languages.[1][3]
First Heading
edit
Manuscript text goes here
Subheading
editSecond Heading
editScripts
editArabic script
editThe Arabic script used for Tunisian is largely the same as for Arabic. However, it includes additional letters to support /g/ (ڨ), /v/ (ڥ) and /p/ (پ).[5][6]
The first known use of Arabic script for Tunisian was recorded in the 17th century, when Sheykh Karray wrote several poems in Tunisian Arabic for mystic purposes.[7] However, transcription of Tunisian Arabic was not common until 1903, when the Gospel of John was transcribed in Tunisian Arabic using Arabic script.[8][9] After the World War I, the use of Arabic script to Tunisian Arabic became very common with the works of Taht Essour.[10][11] Nowadays, it has become the main script used for Tunisian Arabic, even in published books,[12][13] but writing conventions for Tunisian Arabic are not standardized and can change from one book to another.[5][12][13]
In 2014, Ines Zribi et al. proposed a Conventional Orthography for Tunisian Arabic based on the principles of CODA as proposed in 2012. The orthography is based on eliminating phonological simplifications by comparing the words and structures of Tunisian Arabic by their correspondent etymological equivalent in Modern Standard Arabic.[5] Although the convention is quite important, the orthography does not differentiate between [q] and [g] and does not involve several important phonemes that are mainly used in loanwords.[5]
Latin script
edit
Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft Umschrift
editIn 1845, the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft or DMG, a German scientific association dedicated to the studies and the languages of the orient, was formed in Leipzig.[15] Soon, the organization developed a transcription system for Arabic in Latin script.[16] Its system was a phonemic transcription of Arabic written with an extended Latin alphabet and macrons for long vowels.[16] However, this Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft transcription was first tried on Tunisian only after the establishment of the French Protectorate of Tunisia in 1881.[3]
The first linguistic study about Tunisian to be completed was of German linguist Hans Stumme, who, from 1893 to 1896, transcribed Tunisian Arabic with the DMG transcription.[17][18] In addition, from 1897 to 1935, a series of linguistic works were conducted by several French members of the DMG, like William Marçais,[19][20] Philippe Marçais,[21][22] David Cohen[23] and Alfred Nicolas.[24] These works included corpuses,[19][20] grammar books,[21] dictionaries,[24] or studies.[23] By 1935, the DMG transcription included many unique letters and diacritics for Tunisian not used for Arabic,[25] such as, à, è, ù and ì, for short and accentuated vowels.[14] This is the reason why the XIXth international congress of orientalists held in Rome, from 23 to 29 September 1935, adopted a modified simplified version of the DMG transcription specifically for Arabic dialects.[25] From 1935 to 1985, most of the linguists working on Tunisian Arabic such as Gilbert Boris,[26] Hans Rudolf Singer,[3][27] Lucienne Saada[28][29][30] and others,[1][31] adopted the modified DMG.
As of 2016, the modified DMG is still used by institutions such as SIL International or the University of Vienna for Tunisian Arabic written corpuses and linguistic books.[1][32][33]
Additional scripts
editEven if the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft transcription was abundantly used in early linguistic researches about Tunisian,[14][33] some trials were performed in order to create alternative Latin scripts and writing methods.[34][35] The purpose of the trials was to have a simpler and more intuitive Latin Script Writing system than DMG or to try to solve the lack of interconvertibility between scripts as the transcription of Tunisian with the German DMG method was phonetic and not syntactic.[5][36][6]
The first successful trial to create a specific Latin script and writing method for Tunisian was the Practical Orthography of Tunisian Arabic, created by Joseph Jourdan in 1913.[37][38] Its principle was to use French consonant and vowel digraphs and phonology to transcribe non-Latin sounds.[37] In this method, kh is used to transcribe /χ/, ch to transcribe /ʃ/, th to transcribe /θ/, gh to transcribe /ʁ/, dh to transcribe /ð/ or /ðˤ/ and ou to transcribe /u:/, a to transcribe /a:/ and /ɛː/, i to transcribe /i:/ and e to transcribe the short vowels.[39] The layout was successful because it did not involve additional Latin letters and could be transcribed efficiently. It was used in the later linguistic works of Joseph Jourdan about Tunisian Arabic until 1956.[36][40][41] Moreover, it is still presently used in French books to transcribe Tunisian Arabic.[39] The method was used in 1995 by the Tunisian Arabizi, an Arabic chat alphabet, converting the consonant digraphs into digits.[42][43][44] It uses 2 to transcribe a glottal stop, 3 to transcribe /ʕ/, 5 to transcribe /χ/, 6 to transcribe /tˤ/, 7 to transcribe /ħ/, 8 to transcribe /ʁ/ and 9 to transcribe /q/.[44][34] The ch, dh, and th digraphs were kept in Tunisian Arabizi.[44] Vowels are transcribed according to their quality and not to their length as a is used to transcribe short and long [ɐ] and [æ], e is used to transcribe short and long [ɛ] and [e], u is used to transcribe short and long [y], eu is used to transcribe short and long [œ], o is used to transcribe short and long [o], ou is used to transcribe short and long [u] and i is used to transcribe short and long [i] and [ɪ].[34][45] Sometimes, users differentiate between short and long vowels by dropping short ones.[34][45] Like all other Arabic chat alphabets, its use spread considerably during the 1990s mainly with the Tunisian young people.[42][43][46] Nowadays, it is used principally on social networks and mobile phones.[44][34] Also, during the Tunisian Revolution of 2011, Tunisian Arabizi was the main script used for message transmission on internet.[47][48] After 2011, more interest was given to Tunisian Arabizi[45][49] and in 2013, a concise grammar book about Tunisian, written with Tunisian Arabizi, was issued.[50] In 2016, Tunisian Arabizi has been recognized by Ethnologue as an official informal script for writing Tunisian.[51] However, this chat alphabet is not standardized and is seen as informal as the Arabic sounds are transcribed as numbers and letters at the same time.[49][52] The use of digits as numerals and letters at the same time made transcribing Tunisian difficult to users and did not linguistically solve the matters that were faced by the Practical Transcription.[53]
Although they are popular, both methods have problems such as the possibility of ambiguity between digraphs,[54] the absolute certainty of getting a rate of graphs per phoneme that is significantly superior to 1 and of getting independent consonants having the same transliteration as the digraphs,[54] and the lack of disambiguation between /ð/ and /ðˤ/.[39]
A translation of Le Petit Nicolas by Dominique Caubet uses a phonetic transcription.[55]
Separately, another Latin script transcription method was created by Patrick L. Inglefield and his team of linguists from Peace Corps Tunisia and Indiana University in 1970.[35] Letters in this method can be written in lowercase letters only, and even T and S are not equivalent to t and s as T is used to transcribe /tˤ/ and S is used to transcribe /sˤ/.[35] Moreover, three additional Latin letters are used in this writing method that are 3 (/ʕ/), ø (/ð/) and ħ (/ħ/).[35] Four common English digraphs are used that are dh (/ðˤ/), gh (/ʁ/), th (/tˤ/) and sh (/ʃ/).[35] In order to distinguish the digraphs from the independent letters written like the digraphs, the digraphs are underlined.[35] As for the vowels, they are written as å (glottal stop or /ʔ/), ā (/æ/), ā: (/ɛ:/), a (Short an or /a/), a: (long an or /a:/), i (short i or /i/), i: (long i or /i:/), u (short u or /u/), u: (Long u or /u:/).[35] This method was used in the Peace Corps books about Tunisian Arabic until 1993, when Peace Corps Tunisia became inactive.[56][57][58]
After years of works on a phonetic transliteration of Tunisian, linguists decided that the transliteration should be mainly syntactic.[59] Timothy Buckwalter created an orthography-based transcription of Arabic texts during his work for Xerox.[60] Buckwalter transcription was created in order to avoid the effect of phoneme simplification of spoken Modern Standard Arabic on the morphological analysis of the language.[59] In 2004, Tunisian linguist Mohamed Maamouri proposed to use the same transliteration for Arabic dialects and mainly Tunisian.[61] This idea was later developed by Nizar Habash and Mona Diab in 2012 into CODA-based Buckwalter transliteration that eliminates phonological simplification in the Arabic dialects through doing comparisons between dialectal structures and their Modern Standard Arabic equivalents.[62][63] In 2013, a complete work about the regulations of the use of the Buckwalter transliteration for Tunisian was issued by Ines Zribi and her team from the University of Sfax.[64] In fact, a morphological analysis method and a conventional orthography for Tunisian Arabic using this method were posted by 2014.[5][65] However, the method is currently used for computer operations only[5] and it is not used by people, as it involves some ASCII non-alphanumeric graphs as letters, and S, D and T do not correspond respectively to the same phonemes as s, d and t.[66][67] Furthermore, p does not correspond to /p/ but to ﺓ.[68] Even the modified version of Buckwalter transliteration that was proposed by Nizar Habash et al. in 2007 and that substitute ASCII non-alphanumeric graphs by additional Latin letters did not solve the other problems of the original Buckwalter transliteration.[68] That is why both versions of Buckwalter transliteration were not adopted for daily use in writing Tunisian Arabic and are adopted only for NLP purposes.[67]
Third Heading, etc
editTemplate:Cleanup lang The grammar, the conjugation and the morphology of Tunisian Arabic is very similar to that of other Maghrebi Arabic varieties.[1] It is based on Classical Arabic and influenced by Berber languages and Latin, with some morphological inventions. The Berber influence is more noticeable in Pre-Hilalian dialects.[1]
Pronouns
editPersonal pronouns
editTunisian Arabic has 7 personal pronouns since gender differentiation of the 2nd person in the singular form is absent.[1][3][57][69]
| Person[1][3][57][69] | Singular[1][3][57][69] | Plural[1][3][57][69] |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | ānā آنا | aḥnā أحنا |
| 2nd | intī إنتِي | intūmā انتوما |
| 3rd (m) | hūwa هوة | hūma هومة |
| 3rd (f) | hīya هية | hūma هومة |
Example : آنا زادة « Āna zāda. » — "Me too."[1][3][57][69]
Possessive pronouns
editThe possessive pronouns are used as possessive articles when put as a suffix to a preposition or a noun.[1][3][57][69] When it is used after a verb, their functions are rather direct object pronouns.[1][3][57][69] The ones between parenthesis are the ones used after a structure finishing by a vowel.[1][3][57][69]
| Person[1][3][57][69] | Singular[1][3][57][69] | Plural[1][3][57][69] |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -ī (-yā) ي- | -nā نا- |
| 2nd | -ik (-k) ك- | -kum كم- |
| 3rd (m) | -ū (-h) ه- | -hum هم- |
| 3rd (f) | -hā ها- | -hum هم- |
Note, that with feminine words which are generally finished with an ة a, a ت t is added before the suffixes which become tī, tik, tū, thā, tnā, tkum and thum[3][57]
Indirect object pronouns
editIndirect Object Pronouns are used as a suffix after the verb and before the ش- -š of the negation.[1][3][57][69] When there is a combination of direct and indirect object pronouns, indirect object pronouns are always written in the end.[69][2] Furthermore, the first short i for the indirect Object pronoun is always dropped when it is written after a vowel.[57][4]
| Person[1][3][57][69] | Singular[1][3][57][69] | Plural[1][3][57][69] |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -lī لي- | -ilnā لنا- |
| 2nd | -lik لك- | -ilkum لكم- |
| 3rd (m) | -lū له- | -ilhum لهم- |
| 3rd (f) | -ilhā لها- | -ilhum لهم- |
Indefinite pronouns
editIndefinite pronouns are used as a subject to explain general ideas or to report the facts which were done by an unknown person:[1][57][69][4]
- واحد wāḥid (m.), واحدة waḥda (f.), وحود wḥūd (pl.) “Someone”
- الواحد il-wāḥid “The individual”
- فلان flān, Fem. فلانة flāna “such”
- أيّ eyy “Any”
- إلّي يجي illī yjī, Fem. إلّي تجي illī tjī “Anyone”
- كل واحد kull wāḥid “Everyone”
- حاجة ḥāja “Something”
- حتّى واحد ḥattā wāḥid “No one”
- آخر āxir (m.), أخرة uxra (f.), أخرين uxrīn (pl.) “Other”
- الكل il-kull “Everybody”
Interrogative pronouns
editThe next interrogative pronouns are used when asking a question in Tunisian Arabic.[57][69]
| Tunisian Arabic | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| شنوة šnūwa (m.), شنية šnīya (f.), شنومة šnūma (pl.) | What | šnīya is used with feminine words. šnūma is used with plural words. |
| آش āš or ش- š- | What | Used with verbs and some nouns. |
| شكون škūn | Who | |
| آما āmā | Which | |
| وقتاش waqtāš | When | |
| علاش ɛlāš | Why | |
| لواش lwāš | What for | |
| وين wīn or فين fīn | Where | |
| منين mnīn | Where ... from | |
| لوين lwīn | Where ... to | |
| كيفاش kīfāš | How | |
| قدّاش qaddāš | How many | |
| بقدّاش bqaddāš | How much | |
| فاش fāš | What ... in | |
| مناش mnāš | What ... of | |
| آناهو ānāhū (m.), آناهي ānāhī (f.), آناهم ānāhum (pl.) | Which one(s) |
Articles
editDefinite articles
editTranslated in English as "The" Article, "il-" (ال) is used as an added prefix to denote nouns as definite.[1][3][57][2] If the defined nouns begins with a Sun Consonant (n, ṇ, t, ṭ, d, dz, s, ṣ, š, z, ẓ, j, ŧ, đ, ḑ, l, r and ṛ), "il-" would be pronounced as i + the Sun Consonant with which the noun begins.[1][3][57][2] For example:
- الجريدة il-jarīda [ɪʒ:æri:dæ] meaning the Newspaper[57][4]
- الكرسي il-kursī [ɪlkʊrsi] meaning the chair[57][4]
Demonstrative articles
editLike in Standard Arabic, Demonstrative Articles can be used as demonstrative pronouns when they are put alone as subjects.[3][57] When they are articles, they can be written before or after the considered noun which should be definite by "il-".[3][57]
| Demonstrative Articles | Tunisian Arabic[1][3][57][70] | Pronunciation[1][3][57][70] |
|---|---|---|
| This (near the speaker) | هاذا or هاذاية (m), هاذي or هاذية (f) | hāđa or hāđāya (m), hāđī or hāđīya (f) |
| This (far from the speaker) | هاكا or هاكاية (m), هاكي or هاكية (f) | hāka or hākāya (m), hākī or hākīya (f) |
| That | هاذاكة (m), هاذيكة (f) | hāđāka, hāđīka |
| These | هاذومة | hāđūma |
| Those | هاذوكم | hāđūkum |
For example: "This book" could be written in Tunisian as هٰاذا الكتاب hāđā il-ktāb or even as الكتاب هٰاذا il-ktāb hāđā.[70]
When the demonstrative article is before the noun, it can be substituted by an abbreviated form which is ها hā for this and these, هاذْ hāđ for this and هٰاكْ hāk for that and those.[1][70]
For example, "This book" could be written in Tunisian as ها الكتاب hā il-ktāb.[70]
Possessive articles
edit| Possessive article[3][57][4][31] | Tunisian Arabic[3][57][4][31] | Pronunciation[3][57][4][31] |
|---|---|---|
| my | متاعي | mtāɛī |
| your (in Singular) | متاعك | mtāɛik |
| his | متاعه | mtāɛū |
| her | متاعها | mtāɛhā |
| our | متاعنا | mtāɛnā |
| your (in Plural) | متاعكم | mtāɛkum |
| their | متاعهم | mtāɛhum |
Although they do exist, possessive articles in Tunisian Arabic are not used the same way as in English. They mainly show possession valorization in a sentence. Furthermore, they are only used after a definite noun.[3][57][4][31]
For example: الكورة متاعك "il-kūra mtāɛik"- "Your ball"
Indeed, as in Arabic and other languages, possessive pronouns replaces them when there is not a valorization and a stress of the fact of possessing the item. These suffixes are the same as the ones used for conjugation of some verbs, and represent the ending sound of the possessive articles.[1][3]
For example: كورتك "kūrtik"- "Your ball"
Modal verbs
editDifferently from English which uses base form for the second verb (invariable for all pronouns), Tunisian Arabic uses present (or rather imperfect) form for it.[3][71] However, the second verb could be in the past (or rather perfect) form for the three modal verbs راه rāh, حقّه Haqqū and ماذابيه māđābīh (لوكان lūkān should be written before the second verb) which do not have a past form.[57][71] Moreover, قاعد qāɛid could be used before an active participle.[3][57][69][2] Furthermore, all the modal verbs could be in negative form as in Standard English excepting راهه rāhū and ماذابيه māđābīh.[57][71] For example, ماذابينا نمشيوا māđābīnā nimšīū becomes in negative form ماذابينا ما نمشيوش māđābīnā mā nimšīūš and راهه تكلّم Rāhū tkallim becomes in negative form راهه ما تكلّمش Rāhū mā tkallimš.[57][71]
Hāhū (To be, drawing attention to the presence of the referent)
edit| Person[69][31] | Tunisian Arabic[1][72] | Pronunciation[1][72] |
|---|---|---|
| I am | هاني | hānī |
| You are (in Singular) | هاك | hāk |
| He is | هاهه | hāhū |
| She is | هاهي | hāhī |
| We are | هانا | hānā |
| You are (in Plural) | هاكم | hākum |
| They are | هاهم | hāhum |
Example: هاني هوني « Hānī hūnī. » "I'm here."
Ṛāhū (To be, with more intensity by emphasizing it)
edit| Person[69][31] | Tunisian Arabic[69][31] | Pronunciation[69][31] |
|---|---|---|
| I am | راني | ṛānī |
| You are (in Singular) | راك | ṛāk |
| He is | راهه | ṛāhū |
| She is | راهي | ṛāhī |
| We are | رانا | ṛānā |
| You are (in Plural) | راكم | ṛākum |
| They are | راهم | ṛāhum |
Example : راني هوني « Ṛānī hūnī. » — "attention, I'm here."
Māhū (To be, as an evidence marker or in a questioning manner as in tag questions)
edit| Person[69][31] | Tunisian Arabic[73][74] | Pronunciation[73][74] |
|---|---|---|
| Am I not | ماني | mānī |
| Are you not | ماك | māk |
| Is he/it not | ماهه | māhū |
| Is she not | ماهي | māhī |
| Are we not | مانا | māna |
| Are you not (in Plural) | ماكم | mākum |
| Are they not | ماهم | māhum |
Example : ماني هوني « Mānī hūnī. » — "Am I not, here ?." or « Māchīn, māhū ?. » — "We are going, isn't it?."
Qāɛid (To be, at the immediate moment)
edit| Person[3][57][69][4] | Tunisian Arabic[3][57][69][4] | Pronunciation[3][57][69][4] |
|---|---|---|
| I am | قاعد | Qāɛid |
| You are (in Singular) | قاعد | Qāɛid |
| He is | قاعد | Qāɛid |
| She is | قاعدة | Qāɛda |
| We are | قاعدين | Qāɛdīn |
| You are (in Plural) | قاعدين | Qāɛdīn |
| They are | قاعدين | Qāɛdīn |
Example : قاعدين ناكلوا « Qāɛdīn nāklū. » — "we are eating."
Najjam (Could)
edit| Person[3][57][4][31] | Tunisian Arabic[3][57][4][31] | Pronunciation[3][57][4][31] |
|---|---|---|
| I could | نجّمت | najjamt |
| You could (in Singular) | نجّمت | najjamt |
| He could | نجّم | najjam |
| She could | نجّمت | najjmit |
| We could | نجّمنا | najjimnā |
| You could (in Plural) | نجّمتوا | najjimtū |
| They could | نجّموا | najjmū |
Example : نجموا ياكلوا « najjmū yāklū. » — "They could eat."
Ynajjam (Can, To be able to)
edit| Person[3][57][4][31] | Tunisian Arabic[3][57][4][31] | Pronunciation[3][57][4][31] |
|---|---|---|
| I can | نَّجّم | nnajjam |
| You can (in Singular) | تنجّم | tnajjam |
| He can | ينجّم | ynajjam |
| She can | تنجّم | tnajjam |
| We can | نَّجّمُوا | nnajjmū |
| You can (in Plural) | تنجّموا | tnajjmū |
| They can | ينجّموا | ynajjmū |
Example : ينجّموا ياكلوا « Ynajjmū yāklū. » — "They can eat."
Ḥaqū (Should)
edit| Person[3][57][4][31] | Tunisian Arabic[3][57][4][31] | Pronunciation[3][57][4][31] |
|---|---|---|
| I should | حقني | ḥaqnī |
| You should (in Singular) | حقك | ḥaqik |
| He should | حقه | ḥaqū |
| She should | حقها | ḥaqhā |
| We should | حقنا | ḥaqnā |
| You should (in Plural) | حقكم | ḥaqkum |
| They should | حقهم | ḥaqhum |
Example : حقه يتكلّم « Ḥaqū yitkallim. » — "He should speak."
Kaṛū (Would better, stronger intensity than should)
edit| Person[3][57][4][31] | Tunisian Arabic[3][57][4][31] | Pronunciation[3][57][4][31] |
|---|---|---|
| I would better | كارني | kaṛnī |
| You would better (in Singular) | كارك | kaṛik |
| He would better | كاره | kaṛū |
| She would better | كارها | kaṛhā |
| We would better | كارنا | kaṛnā |
| You would better (in Plural) | كاركم | kaṛkum |
| They would better | كارهم | kaṛhum |
Example : كارني تتكلّم « kaṛnī tkāllimt. » — "I would better have spoken."
Yilzmū (Have to)
edit| Person[3][57][4][31] | Tunisian Arabic[3][57][4][31] | Pronunciation[3][57][4][31] |
|---|---|---|
| I have to | يلزمني | yilzimnī |
| You have to (in Singular) | يلزمك | yilzmik |
| He has to | يلزمه | yilzmū |
| She has to | يلزمها | yilzimhā |
| We have to | يلزمنا | yilzimnā |
| You have to (in Plural) | يلزمكم | yilzimkum |
| They have to | يلزمهم | yilzimhum |
Example : يلزمنا نمشيوا « Yilzimnā nimšīū. » — "We have to go."
Lāzmū (Must)
edit| Person[3][57][4][31] | Tunisian Arabic[3][57][4][31] | Pronunciation[3][57][4][31] |
|---|---|---|
| I must | لازمني | lāzimnī |
| You must (in Singular) | لازمك | lāzmik |
| He must | لازمه | lāzmū |
| She must | لازمها | lāzimhā |
| We must | لازمنا | lāzimnā |
| You must (in Plural) | لازمكم | lāzimkum |
| They must | لازمهم | lāzimhum |
Example : لازمنا نمشيوا « Lāzimnā nimšīū. » — "We must go."
Māđābīh (Had better)
edit| Person[57][2][4][31] | Tunisian Arabic[57][2][4][31] | Pronunciation[57][2][4][31] |
|---|---|---|
| I had better | ماذابيا | māđābīyā |
| You had better (in Singular) | ماذابيك | māđābīk |
| He had better | ماذابيه | māđābīh |
| She had better | ماذابيها | māđābīhā |
| We had better | ماذابينا | māđābīnā |
| You had better (in Plural) | ماذابيكم | māđābīkum |
| They had better | ماذابيهم | māđābīhum |
Example : ماذابينا نمشيوا « Māđābīnā nimšīū. » — "We had better go."
Discourse markers
editTunisian Arabic involve Discourse markers that are used to emphasize some facts in discussions.[73] These facts could be even evidences and conclusions.[73]
Evidence markers
editEvidence markers are mainly modal verbs. ṛāhū راهه is used to mark a fact as evident in the affirmative form.[73] It is substituted by ṃāhū ماهه when asking about a supposed evident fact.[73]
Conclusion markers
editConclusion markers are mainly conjunctions. yāxī ياخي is used to mark a fact as a conclusion in the affirmative form.[73] It is substituted by mālā مالا when asking to approve supposed conclusion.[73]
Preverbal markers
editPreverbal markers or auxiliaries are verbs that are used to denote the status of a given action. They are conjugated as Subject + Preverbal marker (Any tense and form) + Action Verb (In present unless the preverbal marker is in imperative.[75] The verb is in imperative in this situation).[75][76] For example, qūm ixdim قوم اخدم meaning go to work.
| Tunisian Arabic | English | Status |
|---|---|---|
| kān كان + Action Verb[75] | to be doing something | Finalization |
| bdā بدا + Action Verb[75] | to begin doing something | Initiation |
| qɛad قعد + Action Verb[75] | to stay doing something | Progression |
| ɛāwid عاود + Action Verb[75] | to return doing something | Repetition |
| ḥabb حب + Action Verb[75] | to like doing something | Passion |
| jā جا + Action Verb[75] | to come doing something | Intention |
| qām قام + Action Verb[75] | to stand up to do something | Intention |
| ṣār صار + Action Verb[76] | to become doing something | Initiation |
| wallā ولى + Action Verb[4] | to become doing something | Initiation |
| mšā مشى + Action Verb[75] | to be going to do something | Intention |
| bqā بقى + Action Verb[76] | to remain doing something | Progression |
| rjaɛ رجع + Action Verb[75] | to return doing something | Repetition |
| jarrib جرب + Action Verb[75] | to try doing something | Experimentation |
| ittilizim اتلزم + Action Verb[75] | to engage oneself in doing something | Engagement |
| kammal كمل + Action Verb[76] | to finish doing something | Finalization |
Verb conjugation
editPerfective and imperfective tenses
editRegular verbs
editThere are significant differences in morphology between Tunisian and Standard Arabic.[1][3][77] Standard Arabic marks 13 person/number/gender distinctions in the verbal paradigm, whereas the dialect of Tunis marks only 7 (the gender distinction is found only in the third person singular).[1][3][77] Nomadic Tunisian Arabic dialects also mark gender for the second person in singular, in common with most spoken varieties of Arabic elsewhere in the Arabic world.[1][77]
In general, the regular verbs are conjugated according to the following pattern:[1][3][69][2][77]
| perfective (Past) |
imperfective (Present) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
| 1st person | ktibt كتبت | ktibnā كتبنا | niktib نكتب | niktbū نكتبوا | |
| 2nd person | ktibt كتبت | ktibtū كتبتوا | tiktib تكتب | tiktbū تكتبوا | |
| 3rd | masculine | ktib كتب | kitbū كتبوا | yiktib يكتب | yiktbū يكتبوا |
| feminine | kitbit كتبت | tiktib تكتب | |||
The second-person singular of the three Nomadic Tunisian Arabic dialects has distinct masculine and feminine forms, with the masculine forms being as above كتبت ktibt and تكتب tiktib, and the feminine forms being كتبتِ ktibtī (perfective) and تكتبي tiktbī (imperfective).[1]
Weak verbs
editVerbs with a final semivowel ā, known as "weak" verbs, have a different pattern.[1][78] This pattern is determined according to the third letter in the root of the verb.[1][78] Moreover, the verbs having a glottal stop as a first letter of their root are also considered as weak verbs.[3][2][23][17][79]
Nomadic dialects have a different third-person singular feminine perfective form as in مشيت [mʃit], حبيت [ħbit], بديت [bdit] and خذيت [χðit][1][79][32] and delete the stem vowel in the plural imperfective forms, giving forms such as نمشوا [nimʃu], نحبوا [niħbu], نبدوا [nibdu] and نوخذوا [nu:χðu].[1][79] Furthermore, Sahil and Southeastern dialects tend to use Template:IPAslink in place of Template:IPAslink in the perfective conjugation. For example, تمشيوا timcīū is pronounced as [timʃe:u] in Sahil and southeastern dialects.[1]
| perfective (Past) |
imperfective (Present) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
| 1st person | mšīt مشيت | mšīnā مشينا | nimšī نمشي | nimšīū نمشيوا | |
| 2nd person | mšītū مشيتوا | timšī تمشي | timšīū تمشيوا | ||
| 3rd | masculine | mšā مشى | mšāū مشاوا | yimšī يمشي | yimšīū يمشيوا |
| feminine | mšāt مشات | timšī تمشي | |||
| perfective (Past) |
imperfective (Present) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
| 1st person | ḥbīt حبيت | ḥbūnā حبونا | niḥbū نحبو | niḥbāū نحباوا | |
| 2nd person | ḥbītū حبيتوا | taḥbū تحبو | taḥbāū تحباوا | ||
| 3rd | masculine | ḥbā حبا | ḥbāū حباوا | yaḥbū يحبو | yaḥbāū يحباوا |
| feminine | ḥbāt حبات | taḥbū تحبو | |||
| perfective (Past) |
imperfective (Present) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
| 1st person | bdīt بديت | bdīnā بدينا | nibdā نبدا | nibdāū نبداوا | |
| 2nd person | bdītūبديتوا | tibdā تبدا | tibdāū تبداوا | ||
| 3rd | masculine | bdā بدا | bdāū بداوا | yibdā يبدا | yibdāū يبداوا |
| feminine | bdāt بدات | tibdā تبدا | |||
| perfective (Past) |
imperfective (Present) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
| 1st person | xđīt خذيت | xđīnā خذينا | nāxđ ناخذ | nāxđū ناخذوا | |
| 2nd person | xđītū خذيتوا | tāxđ تاخذ | tāxđū تاخذوا | ||
| 3rd | masculine | xđā ٰخذا | xđāū خذاوا | yāxđ ياخذ | yāxđū ياخذوا |
| feminine | xđāt خذات | tāxđ تاخذ | |||
Irregular verbs
edit| Pronoun | ɛandū “to have”[69][4] | ḥājtū “to need”[69][4] |
|---|---|---|
| ānā آنا | ɛandī عندي | ḥājtī حاجتي |
| intī إنتِي | ɛandik عندك | ḥājtik حاجتك |
| hūwa هوة | ɛandū عنده | ḥājtū حاجته |
| hīya هية | ɛandhā عندها | ḥājthā حاجتها |
| aḥnā أحنا | ɛandnā عندنا | ḥājtnā حاجتنا |
| intūmā إنتوما | ɛandkum عندكم | ḥājtkum حاجتكم |
| hūma هومة | ɛandhum عندهم | ḥājthum حاجتهم |
Future tense
editThe future tense in Tunisian Arabic is also similar to Berber, more precisely Zenata Berber[80] that was spoken by the majority of Tunisians ancestors:[1]
- باش bāš + verb → "will" + verb (ex: باش تتكسّر /baːʃ titkassir/ → it will break)[1][57]
- ماش māš or باش bāš + verb → "will" + verb (ex: ماش نكسّرها /maːʃ nkassirha/ → I will break it)[1][57]
Taw or Tawwa can be used as a time indicator with a verb in present to mean "being going to do something".[57][4]
Imperative tense
editThe imperative form is considered the stem for the present tense.[57][4]
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| ušrub اُشْرُبْ | ušrbū اُشْرْبوا |
| aɛṭī اَعْطي | aɛṭīū اَعْطِيوا |
Conditional tenses
editConditional present
editThe conditional present is conjugated as Kaṛū or Ḥaqqū + Verb in Present tense.[3][69] This tense is generally used to show regret.[3][69]
| Pronoun | Auxiliary Verbs | |
|---|---|---|
| ānā آنا | kāṛnī كارني | ḥaqqnī حقّني |
| intī إنتِي | kāṛik كارك | ḥaqqik حقّك |
| hūwa هوة | kāṛū كاره | ḥaqqū حقّه |
| hīya هية | kāṛhā كارها | ḥaqqhā حقّها |
| aḥnā أحنا | kāṛnā كارنا | ḥaqqnā حقّنا |
| intūmā إنتوما | kāṛkum كاركم | ḥaqqkum حقّكم |
| hūma هومة | kāṛhum كارهم | ḥaqqhum حقّهم |
Conditional past
editI should have done something
editFor the past conditional, the same structures seen above are used, but instead of the present tense, the past tense is used.[57][4]
I could have done something
editThis structure is conjugated as kān ynajjam + Verb in the present tense.[69][4]
| Pronoun | Auxiliary Verb |
|---|---|
| ānā آنا | kunt nnajjam كنت نّجّم |
| intī إنتي | kunt tnajjam كنت تنجّم |
| hūwa هوة | kān ynajjam كان ينجّم |
| hīya هية | kānit tnajjam كانت تنجّم |
| aḥnā أحنا | kunnā nnajjmū كنّا نّجّموا |
| intūmā إنتوما | kuntū tnajjmū كنتوا تنجّموا |
| hūma هومة | kānū ynajjmū كانوا ينجّموا |
I would have done something
editThis structure is conjugated as ṛāhū + Verb in the present tense.[69][4]
Verb derivation
editVerb derivation is done by adding prefixes or by doubling consonants to the simple verb having the root fɛal (Triconsonantal) or faɛlil (Quadriconsonantal). The verb's root determines the possible derivations.[1][57][4][21] Generally, the patterns used in Verb Derivation are the same as in Standard Arabic.[1][57]
Triconsonantal verbs
edit- Causative: is obtained by doubling consonants :
- Adding ā between the first two radical consonants, e.g. xālaṭ “to frequent”[57][4]
- Inchoative: Adding ā between the last two radical consonants, e.g. ḥmār “turn red”[57][4]
- Passive: This derivation is influenced by Berber and is different from the one of Classical Arabic (the passive voice in classical Arabic uses vowel changes and not verb derivation), it is obtained by prefixing the verb with /t-/ (First letter in the root as Moon Consonant), /tt-/ (First letter in the root as Sun Consonant), /tn-/ (can efficiently substitute tt- when the verb is conjugated in Present Tense) or /n-/ (can efficiently substitute t- when the verb is conjugated in Present Tense):[1][3][57][69][4][81]
- Prefixing ist– to the verb, e.g. istaxbar “to get informed”[57][4]
- Prefixing i- to the verb and Infixing t after the first radical consonant, e.g. اجتمع ijtmaɛ “to assemble”[57][4]
Quadriconsonantal verbs
editVerb forms
editExclamative form
editThe exclamative form can be formed by the intonation and in this particular situation, the sentence ends with an exclamation mark to distinguish it from an affirmative sentence[3][57][69][4] Furthermore, it can be formed using Qaddāš + Noun or Possessive Pronoun + Adjective or Imperfective verb + !.[3][57][69][4]
Interrogative form
editThe interrogative form can be formed by two methods: The intonation and the Suffix -š.[69][4] When an interrogative adverb or pronoun exists, the question is an āš question that is equivalent to the English wh question and if the question does not involve any interrogative adverb or pronoun, it is an īh/lā question that is equivalent to the English Yes/No Question.[69][4][82]
- The Intonation: Which is a variation of the spoken pitch to distinguish a question from an affirmative sentence. In writing, a question mark is used after an affirmative sentence to transform it into an interrogative sentence.[57][69][2][4][82]
Example: تحبّ تمشي لتونس tḥibb timšī l- tūnis?, Do you want to go to Tunisia?
- The Suffix -š: -š or -šī can be suffixed to the verb to indicate an interrogative sentence.[57][69][2][4][82]
Example: تعرفوشي؟ taɛṛfūšī?, Do you know him?
Negative form
edit- With verbs conjugated in the present, past and conditional tenses:
To make the negative form, we put me in front of the verb and š at the end of the verb.[1][3][57][2]
[82]
Example: ما فهمش الدرس mā fhimš il-dars, He didn't understand the lesson.
N.B.: With the past conditional (would have) this negative form is used with the main verb.[57][69][82]
Example: لوكان عرفت راني ما جيتش lūkān ɛṛaft rānī mā jītš, If I knew I would not have come.
- With The Future And Present Participle:
To negate the present participles and the verbs conjugated in the future, mūš, or its conjugated form, is added in front of the verb.[1][3][57][2][82]
Example: موش باش نشوفه الجمعة هاذي mūš bāš nšūfū ij-jumɛa hāđī, I won't see him this week.
موش mūš is conjugated as follows:[57][69]
| Pronoun | Auxiliary Verb |
|---|---|
| ānā آنا | mānīš مانيش |
| intī إنتي | mākiš ماكش |
| hūwa هوة | māhūš ماهوش |
| hīya هية | māhīš ماهيش |
| aḥnā أحنا | mānāš مناش |
| intūmā انتوما | mākumš مكمش |
| hūmā هومة | māhumš مهمش |
Relative clause
editThe only relative pronoun used in Tunisian Arabic is illī meaning who or that and its short form is lī.[2][4]
Nouns
editGender
editMasculine gender
editNouns ending either in a consonant, u, i, ū or ī are usually masculine.[69][4] For example: باب bāb “door”, كرسي kursī “chair”.[69][4] There are, however, some exceptions. Indeed, some consonant-final and some ī-final nouns are in the feminine gender (usually, names of countries and cities, and names of parts of the body, and nouns ending in –t are in the feminine).[69][4] For example: پاريز Pārīz “Paris”, بيت bīt “room”, بسكلات bisklāt “bicycle”.[69][4]
Uninflected feminine gender
editNouns ending with a or ā vowel are usually in the feminine.[1][69]
For example: سنّة sinna “tooth”, خريطة xarīṭa “map”.
There are, however, a few exceptions: أعمى aɛmā “blind man”, ممشى mamšā “alley”, عشاء ɛšā “dinner”.[69]
Inflected feminine gender
edit- Feminization: Generally, male nouns form their feminine by the suffixation of a vowel.[69][4] For example, كلب kalb > كلبة kalba, جدّ jadd > جدّة jadda, بطل bṭal > بطلة baṭla. Some male nouns, however, do not form their feminine by the suffixation of a, but have suppletive female counterparts.[69][4] For example, راجل rājel > مرا mra, ولد wlad > طفلة ṭufla, بو bū > أمّ umm.[69][4]
- Individual singular of collective plural and mass nouns: Similarly, collective plural and mass nouns form their feminine by the suffixation of a. For example, زيتون zītūn “olive” > زيتونة zītūna “an olive”, تمر tmar “dates” > تمرة tamra “a date”.[69]
- Individual singular of verbal nouns: Generally, verbal nouns form their individual singulars by the suffixation of a. For example, بني bany > بنية banya, تفركيس tfarkīs > تفركيسة tfarkīsa.[69][4]
The dual
editMarking of the dual for nouns by adding -īn as a suffix to them is only used for quantity measures, for nouns having the CCVC form such as C is an ungeminated consonant and V is a short vowel and things often occurring in twos (e.g. eyes, hands, parents).[1][4] In general, these nouns have broken plurals and not regular ones.[4] Marking of the dual is also done by writing zūz before the regular or irregular plural noun.[57][4] For example:
- سبوع sbūɛ (finger) becomes سبوعين sūbɛīn
- ليل līl (night) becomes زوز ليالي zūz lyālī
The plural
editThe plural in Tunisian can be classified according to its structure. There are mainly two types of structure: suffixed structure and internal structure.[69] However and as reported in many studies, the rate of broken plurals for Tunisian and by that the rate of the use of the Pluralization Internal Structure is more important than the one for Standard Arabic and several other Arabic dialects.[57][69][4][45][83][84][85][86][87][88] This considerable use of the Internal Structure of Pluralization is considered by most of the linguists as an influence of the Berber substratum.[89][90]
Using the Suffixed Structure, Singular nouns may form their plural by the suffixation of any of the following plural suffixes:[69]
| Word end | Suffix |
|---|---|
| -uw, a vowel or a consonant | –āt |
| -iy | –īn |
This kind of plural is considered as regular plurals.[57][69] However, There is a suffixed structure which is considered as a broken plural which is the plural of name of the noun constituted of the name of a town or a group of people and the suffix ī.[57][69] This structure is done to attribute the person to a group or a city and its plural is obtained by adding ā after the second letter of the root and adding a as a suffix in the end of the word.[69]
Using the Internal Structure, the plural in Tunisian follows the following patterns such as C is an ungeminated consonant, V is a short vowel, C: is a geminated consonant:[69][4]
| Singular pattern | Plural pattern |
|---|---|
| CūC | CCāCī |
| CāC | CīCān |
| CaCCaC | CaCāCiC |
| CCaC5 | CCūCāt |
| CaCC5 | CCāC |
| CCāC | CCuC |
| CiCC | CCūC |
| CVCCVC or CVCCVCa | CCāCiC |
| CāCiC or CaCC5 | CCūC |
| CāCiC5 | CVC:āC |
| CVCC5 | CCūCa |
| CiCCa | CCiC |
| CCaC5 | uCCCa |
| CaCCa | CCaC |
Adjectives
editGender
editMasculine
editUninflected adjectives are masculine singular.[69] There are two main types of adjectives:[69]
- Participial adjectives: Participles, whether real or historical, may function both as adjectives and nouns.[2]
E.g. متغشّش mtġaššaš “angry”.
- Other adjectives: These include any non-participial adjectives.[69]
E.g. طويل ṭwīl “tall”.
Feminine
editLike participles and some nouns, adjectives form their feminine by the suffixation of a.[69] For example, جيعان jīɛān > جيعانة jīɛāna “hungry”, سخون sxūn > سخونة sxūna “hot”.
In some cases, when the adjective ends with an i vowel, the i becomes a y.[69] E.g. باهي bāhi > باهية bāhya Some uninflected adjectives are in the feminine. Their masculine counterparts are either suppletive or do not exist.[69]
For example: حبلة ḥibla “pregnant”, عزوزة ɛzūza “old woman”.
The masculine counterpart of عزوزة ɛzūza is شايب šāyib, though, عزوز ɛzūz exists in some idiolects.[69]
Some adjectives cannot be inflected either for gender or number.[69] E.g. وردي wardi “pink”, حموم ḥmūm “disastreous”.
Number
editUnlike nouns, adjectives are not inflected for dual. The plural is used instead.[69] Like nouns, there are two main types of structure: suffixed structure and internal structure.[69]
- Suffixed Structure: There are two types of plural suffixes which can be suffixed to a singular adjective: –īn (when the adjective finishes with an i+Consonant) and –a (for all other situations excepting the ones having an internal form).[69]
- Internal Structure: Generally, adjective's plural follows the following structures: CCāC (for CCīC, CCūC, CVCCūn and CVC: as singular patterns), CuCCā (for CCīC and CCiy as singular patterns), CCāCiC (for CVCâC, CVC:ūC, CCV:CV, CVCCV:C as singular patterns), CCuC (for CCīC, aCCā and aCCaC as singular patterns), CCaC (for CaCCī as a singular pattern), CCāCa (for CCīC and CVCCV as singular patterns and for adjectives finishing by an ān), CCī (for aCCaC and aCCā as singular patterns), CuCCān (for CuCāC as a singular pattern), CCaC:Ca (for CaCCūC as a singular pattern), CVC:āC (for CāCiC as a singular pattern), CūCa (for CīC as a singular pattern) and CCāCCa (for CVCCV:C as a singular pattern and for adjectives finishing by an ī).[69][4]
Adjective forms
editComparative form
editThe comparative of superiority: The comparative form is the same whether the adjective is feminine or masculine.[57][4]
- Adjectives composed of 3 consonants with a full vowel on the second The comparative form is formed by adding a before the adjective and by replacing the full vowel with a breve vowel, plus min after the adjective. E.g. كبير kbīr > أكبر من akbir min “bigger than”[57][4]
- Adjectives ending with a vowel The comparative is formed by adding a as a prefix, and replacing the final vowel with ā. When the first syllable of the adjective has a long vowel, this vowel is removed. E.g. عالي ɛālī > أعلى aɛlā min “higher than”.[57][4]
The comparative of inferiority: It's formed by the following structure: أقلّ aqall + noun + من min. For example, هي أقلّ طول من خوها hīya aqall ṭūl min xūha “she’s less tall than her brother”[57][4]
The comparative of equality: It is formed by using the following structure: noun (subject) + فرد fard + (comparative) noun + personal pronoun + و w + noun (compared). For example, فاطمة فرد طول هي و خوها Fāṭma fard ṭūl hīya w xūha “Fatma is as tall as her brother”. This structure can be simplified as follows: noun + و w + noun + فرد fard + noun. For example, فاطمة و خوها فرد طول Fāṭma w xūha fard ṭūl “Fatma is as tall as her brother”[57][4]
Superlative form
editIt is formed by adding واحد wāḥid (m.), واحدة waḥda (f.) or وحود wḥūd (pl.) after the comparative of superiority.[57][4]
Proportion in Tunisian Arabic
editIn order to denote the proportion of the participants in the given action from a greater community, the adjectives and adverbs of proportion shown here are used.[57][4]
- کل kull (adj.) “Every”
- جمیع or معا بعضنا jmīɛ (adj.) or mɛā bɛaḑnā (adv.) “Together”
- بعض or شويّة baɛḑ or šwayya (adj.) “Some”
- فرد fard (adj.) “Same”
- وحد waḥd with possessive pronoun (adv.) “Alone”
Numerals
editCardinals
edit- Cardinal numbers: The transcription of cardinal numbers is the same as in English and some other European languages.[4][91] The number is read from left to right.[4][91] This table provides several examples of names of cardinals in Tunisian Arabic and can give a better overview about this fact.[4][91]
| Cardinal | Tunisian Arabic |
|---|---|
| 0 | ṣfir صفر |
| 1 | wāḥid واحد |
| 2 | iŧnīn or zūz اثنين or زوز |
| 3 | ŧlāŧa ثلاثة |
| 4 | arbɛa أربعة |
| 5 | xamsa خمسة |
| 6 | sitta ستّة |
| 7 | sabɛa سبعة |
| 8 | ŧmanya ثمانية |
| 9 | tisɛa تسعة |
| 10 | ɛacra عشرة |
| 11 | ḥdāc احداش |
| 12 | ŧnāc اثناش |
| 13 | ŧluṭṭāc ثلظّاش |
| 14 | arbaɛṭāc اربعطاش |
| 15 | xumsṭāc خمسطاش |
| 16 | sutṭāc سطّاش |
| 17 | sbaɛṭāc سبعطاش |
| 18 | ŧmanṭāc ثمنطاش |
| 19 | tsaɛṭāc تسعطاش |
| 20 | ɛicrīn عشرين |
| 21 | wāḥid w ɛicrīn واحد وعشرين |
| 30 | ŧlāŧīn ثلاثين |
| 40 | arbɛīn أربعين |
| 50 | xamsīn خمسين |
| 60 | sittīn ستّين |
| 70 | sabɛīn سبعين |
| 80 | ŧmanīn ثمانين |
| 90 | tisɛīn تسعين |
| 100 | mya مية |
| 101 | mya w wāḥid مية وواحد |
| 110 | mya w ɛacra مية وعشرة |
| 200 | mītīn ميتين |
| 300 | ŧlāŧamya ثلاثة مية |
| 1000 | alf الف |
| 1956 | alf w tisɛamya w sitta w xamsīn الف وتسعة مية وستّة وخمسين |
| 2000 | alfīn الفين |
| 10000 | ɛacra lāf عشرة الاف |
| 100000 | myat elf مية الف |
| 1000000 | malyūn مليون |
| 123456789 | mya w ŧlāŧa w ɛicrīn malyūn w arbɛa mya w sitta w xamsīn alf w sabɛa mya w tisɛa w ŧmanīn مية وثلاثة وعشرين مليون وأربعة مية وستّة وخمسين الف وسبعة ميه وتسعة وثمانين |
| 1000000000 | milyār مليار |
- Nouns following a cardinal number:
- Number one is generally not used with the single object counted unless we want to emphasize that there is only a single thing. E.g. طاولة ṭāwla “a table”, طاولة واحدة ṭāwla waḥda “one table”.[4][91]
- For the number two, we use the dual of the noun or we use زوز zūz plus the plural of the noun.[4][91]
- From 3 to 10, we use the number plus the plural of the noun. E.g. خمسة كتب xamsa ktub “five books”.[4][91]
- From 11 to 19, we use the number to which we add the consonant n plus the noun in singular. E.g. سبعطاش كتاب sbaɛţācn ktāb “17 books”.[4][91]
- From 20 to 99, we use the number plus the singular. E.g. ثمانين دينار ŧmānīn dinār “80 Dinars”[4][91]
- For numbers ending with a like مية mya, an –at is suffixed to it when used with a noun. E.g. مية دولار myāt dolār “100 dollars”.[4][91]
- For the other numbers, we use the number plus the singular. E.g. الف ميترو alf mītrū “1000 meters”.[4][91]
- Number zero is generally expressed as حتّى ḥatta + noun. E.g. حتّى كرهبة ḥatta karhba “zero cars”.[4][91]
Days of the week
edit| Standard English[3][4] | Tunisian Arabic[3][4] |
|---|---|
| Monday | il-iŧnīn الإثنين |
| Tuesday | il-ŧlāŧ الثلاث |
| Wednesday | il-irbɛa الإربعة |
| Thursday | il-xmīs الخميس |
| Friday | il-jimɛa الجمعة |
| Saturday | il-sibt السبت |
| Sunday | il-aḥadd الأحدّ |
Months of the year
edit| Standard English[3][4] | Tunisian Arabic[3][4] |
|---|---|
| January | Jānfī جانفي |
| February | Fīvrī فيڥري |
| March | Mārs مارس |
| April | Avrīl أڥريل |
| May | Māy ماي |
| June | Jwān جوان |
| July | Jwīlya جويلية |
| August | Ūt أوت |
| September | Siptumbir سپتمبر |
| October | Uktobir أكتوبر |
| November | Nūvumbir نوڥمبر |
| December | Dīsumbir ديسمبر |
Note, that in this case, the modern months are a tunisification of the name of the months from French, inherited from the protectorate times. The native names of the months were that of their original Latin names, following the berber calendar:
| Standard English[3][4] | Tunisian Arabic[3][4] |
|---|---|
| January | Yennā(ye)r ينار، يناير |
| February | Fūrā(ye)r فورار، فورسير |
| March | Mārsū مارسو |
| April | Abrīl أبريل |
| May | Māyū مايو |
| June | Yūnyū يونيو |
| July | Yūlyū يوليو |
| August | Awūsū أووسو |
| September | Shtamber شتمبر |
| October | Uktūber أكتوبر |
| November | Nūfember نوفمبر |
| December | Dejember دجمبر |
Ordinals
editThe ordinals in Tunisian are from one to twelve only, in case of higher numbers, the cardinals are used.[2]
| English Ordinals[2][4] | Masculine[2][4] | Feminine[2][4] | Plural[2][4] |
|---|---|---|---|
| First | أول uwwil or أولاني ūlānī | أولى ūlā or أولانية ūlānīya | أولين ūlīn or أولانين ūlānīn |
| Second | ثاني ŧāni | ثانية ŧānya | ثانين ŧānīn |
| Third | ثالت ŧāliŧ | ثالتة ŧālŧa | ثالتين ŧālŧīn |
| Fourth | رابع rābiɛ | رابعة rābɛa | رابعين rābɛīn |
| Fifth | خامس xāmis | خامسة xāmsa | خامسين xāmsīn |
| Sixth | سادس sādis | سادسة sādsa | سادسين sādsīn |
| Seventh | سابع sābiɛ | سابعة sābɛa | سابعين sābɛīn |
| Eighth | ثامن ŧāmin | ثامنة ŧāmna | ثامنين ŧāmnīn |
| Ninth | تاسع tāsiɛ | تاسعة tāsɛa | تاسعين tāsɛīn |
| Tenth | عاشر ɛāšir | عاشرة ɛāšra | عاشرين ɛāšrīn |
| Eleventh | حادش ḥādiš | حادشة ḥādša | حادشين ḥādšīn |
| Twelfth | ثانش ŧāniš | ثانشة ŧānšā | ثانشين ŧānšīn |
Fractions
editThere are special forms for fractions from two to ten only, elsewhere percentage is used.[2][4] The Fractions can be used for various purposes like the expression of proportion and the expression of time...[4] For example, the expression of 11:20 in Tunisian Arabic is il-ḥdāc w ŧluŧ and the expression of 11:40 in Tunisian Arabic is nuṣṣ il-nhār ġīr ŧluŧ.[4] Similarly, midnight is nuṣṣ il-līl and noon is nuṣṣ il-nhār.[3]
| Standard English[2] | Tunisian Arabic[2] |
|---|---|
| one half | نصف nuṣf or نصّ nuṣṣ |
| one third | ثلث ŧluŧ |
| one quarter | ربع rbuɛ |
| one fifth | خمس xmus |
| one sixth | سدس sdus |
| one seventh | سبع sbuɛ |
| one eighth | ثمن ŧmun |
| one ninth | تسع tsuɛ |
| one tenth | عشر ɛšur |
Time measurement during the day
editAs said above, time measurement method and vocabulary below 1 hour is very peculiar in Tunisian and is not found in neither the other dialects of Maghrebi Arabic or standard Arabic. Indeed, Tunisian, uses fractions of 1 hour and a special unit of 5 minutes called دراج "drāj", to express time. Also, as in English as "it's 3 am/pm" or just "it's 3" and contrary to other languages such as standard Arabic, Tunisian do not precise the word "sāɛa (hour)" when expressing the time of the day as the subject is considered implied. Below is the list of the vocabulary used for time indication:
| Standard English[2][4][21] | Tunisian Arabic[2][4][21] |
|---|---|
| 1 second | ثانية ŧānya or سيڨوندة sīgūnda |
| 1 minute | دقيقة dqīqa |
| 5 minutes | درج draj |
| 15 minutes | ربع rbuɛ |
| 20 minutes | ثلث ŧluŧ or أربعة دراج arbɛa drāj |
| 30 minutes | نصف nuṣf or نصّ nuṣṣ |
Basic measures
editThe Basic units for Tunisian Arabic are used in the same way as in English.[2][4][21]
| Standard English[2][4][21] | Tunisian Arabic[2][4][21] |
|---|---|
| Three | kānūn كانون |
| Four | ḥāra حارة |
| Five | ɛiddat īdik عدّة إيدك |
| Twelve | ṭuzzīna طزّينة |
| One centimeter | ṣāntī صانتي |
| One meter | mītrū ميترو |
| One deciliter | ɛšūrīya عشورية |
| Two deciliters | xmūsīya خموسية |
| A quarter of a litre (fluid) | rbuɛ ītra ربع إيترة |
| One litre | ītra إيترة |
| Ten litres (fluid) | dīga ديڨة |
| Ten liters (mass) | galba ڨلبة |
| Twenty liters (mass) | wība ويبة |
| Three grams | ūqīya أوقية |
| One pound | rṭal رطل |
| One kilogram | kīlū كيلو |
| One ton | ṭurnāṭa طرناطة |
| One second | ŧānya or sīgūnda ثانية or سيڨوندة |
| One minute | dqīqa دقيقة |
| Five minutes | draj درج |
| One hour | sāɛa ساعة |
| One day | nhar نهار |
| One week | jumɛa جمعة |
| One month | šhar شهر |
| One year | ɛām عام |
| One century | qarn قرن |
The measure units are accorded when in dual or in plural, for example:[3][2][4][21]
- dqīqa becomes دقيقتين dqīqtīn (2 minutes) in dual
- sāɛa becomes سوايع swāyaɛ (hours) in plural
Prepositions
editThere are two types of prepositions: single (commonly used) and compound prepositions (rarely used).[2]
Single prepositions
edit| Standard English[2][4] | Tunisian Arabic[2][4] |
|---|---|
| In | في fi- (fī before indefinite nouns or prepositions) |
| With | بـ b- |
| To (Place, Person) | لـ l- |
| From | مـ m- (من min before indefinite nouns or prepositions) |
| At | عند ɛand |
| With | معا mɛā |
| On, About | عـ ɛa- (على ɛlā before indefinite nouns or prepositions) |
| Between | بين bīn |
| Before | قبل qbal |
| After | بعد baɛd |
| Behind | ورا wrā |
| Over | فوق fūq |
| Under | تحت taḥt |
| In the middle of | وسط wusṭ |
| Inside | فسط fusṭ |
| Like | كـ ki- (kīf before indefinite nouns or prepositions) |
| As much as, as big as ... | قدّ qadd |
| Without | بلاش blāš |
| Even | حتّى ḥattā |
| Round | جيهة jīhit, شيرة šīrit |
| In front of | قدّام quddām |
| Of | متاع mtāɛ |
| About (number, quantity, distance) | مدوار madwār |
| Approximatively | تقريب taqrīb |
Compound prepositions
editCompound prepositions are the prepositions that are obtained through the succession of two single prepositions.[2] وسط Wusṭ, جيهة jīhit, شيرة šīrit and متاع mtāɛ can be used as second prepositions with any single preposition before it excepting وسط Wusṭ, جيهة jīhit, شيرة šīrit and متاع mtāɛ.[2] The other prepositions are: من بين min bīn, من بعد min baɛd, من عند min ɛand, من تحت min taḥt, من قبل min qbal, من فوق min fūq, من ورا min wrā, كيف بعد kīf baɛd, كيف عند kīf ɛand, كيف تحت kīf taḥt, كيف قبل kīf qbal, كيف فوق kīf fūq, كيف ورا kīf wrā, كيف معا kīf mɛā, قبل فوق qbal fūq, على فوق ɛlā fūq, بتحت b- taḥt, في تحت fī taḥt, ببلاش b- blāš, من قدّام min quddām and حتّى قدّام ḥattā quddām.[2]
Conjunctions
editCoordinate conjunctions
editCoordinate conjunctions link verbs, adverbs, nouns, pronouns, clauses, phrases and sentences of the same structure.[2][4]
| Standard English[2][4] | Tunisian Arabic[2][4] |
|---|---|
| And | w و |
| Or | w illā... wallā وإلّا.. ولّا |
| Either ... or | ammā ... w illā/wallā أمّا و إلّا\ولّا |
| But | lākin لكن, amā أما |
| Without | min/mā ğīr mā من\ما غير ما |
| Only | mā ... kān ما.. كان |
| The contrary of | ɛaks min/mā عكس من\ما |
| And then | hāk il-sāɛa هاك الساعة, sāɛathā ساعتها, waqthā وقتها, w iđā bīh و إذا بيه |
| In brief | il-ḥāṣil الحاصل, il-ḥaṣīlū الحصيلو |
| Sometimes ... sometimes | marra ... marra مرّة.. مرّة, sāɛa ... sāɛa ساعة.. ساعة, sāɛāt ساعات |
| As far as | qadd mā قدّ ما, qadd قدّ |
| Before | qbal قبل |
| Otherwise | kānšī |
| Moreover, Besides | bāra min hak |
| Consequently | ɛal hak |
| In addition | lī zāda |
| Instead | lī ɛāwiđ |
| Overall | f- il-kul |
| Above all else | min fuq hāđa il-kul |
| Anyway | kul f- il-kul |
| Also | zāda |
Subordinate conjunctions
editSubordinate conjunctions introduce dependent clauses only. There two types of conjunctions: single and compound.[2][4] The compound conjunctions mainly consist of prepositions that are compound with illī.[2][4] The main Subordinate conjunctions for Tunisian are Waqt illī وقت اللي “When”, m- illī ماللي “Since”, qbal mā قبل ما “Before”, īđā إذا “If”, lūkān لوكان “If”, mā ما "what", bāš باش “In order to”, (ɛlā) xāṭir على) خاطر) “because”, (ɛlā) ḥasb mā على) حسب ما) “According to”.[2][4]
Adverbs
editAdverbs can be subdivided into three subgroups: single, compound and interrogative.[4][21]
Single adverbs
edit- Adverbs of time:[2][4]
- tawwa توة Now
- taww تو A moment ago
- dīmā ديما Always
- bikrī بكري Early
- fīsaɛ فيسع Fast, quickly
- māzāl مازال Still
- Adverbs of place:[2][4]
- hnā هنا Here
- ġādī غادي There
- Adverbs of manner:[2][4]
- hakka هكة Like this
- hakkāka, hakkīka هكاكة، هكيكة Like that
- Adverbs of measure:[2][4]
- barša برشة Much, very
- šwayya شوية Little
- yāsir ياسر Very, much
- taqrīb تقريب About
- bark برك Only
Compound adverbs
edit- Adverbs of time:[2][4]
- taww taww تو تو Here and now / Immediately
- min baɛd من تو Afterwards
- min bikrī من بكري A moment ago
- min tawwa من توة From now on
- Adverbs of place:[2][4]
- l- fūq لفوق On (Up)
- l- il-ūṭa لأوطى Bellow
- l- dāxil لداخل In
- l- barra لبرة Out
- l- quddām لقدام Upwards
- l- tālī لتالي Backwards
- min hūnī من هوني From here
- min ġādī من غادي From there
- Adverbs of manner:[2][4]
- b- il-sīf بالسيف Forcibly
- b- il-syāsa بالسياسة gently
- b- il-ɛānī بالعاني Purposely
- b- il-šwaya بالشوية Slowly
- b- il-zarba بالزربة Rapidly
- Adverbs of measure:[2][4]
- ɛa- il-aqall عالاقل At least
Interrogative adverbs
editNouns derived from verbs
editThe nouns derived from verbs are the Active Participle, the Passive Participle and the Verbal Noun.[1][3][69][4]
Participles
edit- Active Participle: The Active Participle is the noun used to call the person or the object who/that did the action. It can be used as a subject and an adjective.[1][3][69][4]
- They are obtained for the simple verb having the root fɛal or faɛlil by adding ā between the first and the second letters of the root and changing the vowel between the last but one and the last letters of the root into i.[1][3][69][4] For example, ɛāzif عازف is instrument player in Tunisian and is obtained from the verb ɛzaf عزف.[4]
- They are obtained for the derived verbs by adding m as a prefix and changing the vowel between the last but one and the last letters of the root into i.[1][3][69][4] For example, mšērik مشارك is a participant in Tunisian and is obtained from the verb šērik شارك.[4]
- Passive Participle: The Passive Participle is the noun used to call the person or the object who/that received the action. It can be used as a subject and an adjective.[1][3][69][4]
- They are obtained for the simple verb having the root fɛal or faɛlil by adding ma as a prefix and changing the vowel between the last but one and the last letters of the root into ū.[1][3][69][4] For example, maɛzūfa معزوفة is a musical composition in Tunisian and is obtained from the verb ɛzaf عزف.[4]
- They are obtained for the derived verbs by adding m as a prefix and changing the vowel between the last but one and the last letters of the root into a.[1][3][69][4] For example, mhaddad مهدد is threatened person in Tunisian and is derived from the verb haddad هدد.[4]
Verbal noun
editThe verbal noun is the noun that indicates the done action itself.[1][3][69][2][4] Its form is known through the pattern and root of the verb from which it is derived or rather the pattern of its singular imperative conjugation.[1][3][69][2][4]
- Simple Verb:
- Derived Verb: According to the pattern[1][69]
- Regular: Verbal nouns for all regular derived verbs is obtained through the addition of ā between the last and the last but one letter of the root.[1][69]
- Irregular:
- Doubling the second letter of the root: taCCīC[1][69]
- Adding t as a prefix and doubling the second letter of the root: tCaC1C1uC2[1][69]
- Adding t as a prefix and ā between the first and the second letter of the root: tCāCuC[1][69]
- Adding i as a prefix and t between the first and second letter of the root: iCtCāC[1][69]
Additional information
editAcknowledgements
editAny people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.
Competing interests
editAny conflicts of interest that you would like to declare. Otherwise, a statement that the authors have no competing interest.
Ethics statement
editAn ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.
References
edit- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57 1.58 1.59 1.60 1.61 1.62 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.70 1.71 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.76 1.77 1.78 1.79 1.80 1.81 1.82 1.83 1.84 1.85 Gibson, M. (2009). Tunis Arabic. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, 4, 563–71.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 2.40 2.41 2.42 2.43 2.44 2.45 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.49 2.50 2.51 2.52 2.53 2.54 2.55 2.56 2.57 2.58 2.59 2.60 2.61 2.62 2.63 Talmoudi, Fathi (1979) The Arabic Dialect of Sûsa (Tunisia). Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 3.38 3.39 3.40 3.41 3.42 3.43 3.44 3.45 3.46 3.47 3.48 3.49 3.50 3.51 3.52 3.53 3.54 3.55 3.56 3.57 3.58 3.59 3.60 3.61 3.62 3.63 3.64 3.65 3.66 3.67 3.68 3.69 3.70 3.71 3.72 3.73 3.74 3.75 3.76 3.77 3.78 3.79 3.80 3.81 3.82 3.83 3.84 3.85 3.86 3.87 3.88 3.89 3.90 (in German) Singer, Hans-Rudolf (1984) Grammatik der arabischen Mundart der Medina von Tunis. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
- ↑ 4.000 4.001 4.002 4.003 4.004 4.005 4.006 4.007 4.008 4.009 4.010 4.011 4.012 4.013 4.014 4.015 4.016 4.017 4.018 4.019 4.020 4.021 4.022 4.023 4.024 4.025 4.026 4.027 4.028 4.029 4.030 4.031 4.032 4.033 4.034 4.035 4.036 4.037 4.038 4.039 4.040 4.041 4.042 4.043 4.044 4.045 4.046 4.047 4.048 4.049 4.050 4.051 4.052 4.053 4.054 4.055 4.056 4.057 4.058 4.059 4.060 4.061 4.062 4.063 4.064 4.065 4.066 4.067 4.068 4.069 4.070 4.071 4.072 4.073 4.074 4.075 4.076 4.077 4.078 4.079 4.080 4.081 4.082 4.083 4.084 4.085 4.086 4.087 4.088 4.089 4.090 4.091 4.092 4.093 4.094 4.095 4.096 4.097 4.098 4.099 4.100 4.101 4.102 4.103 4.104 4.105 4.106 4.107 4.108 4.109 4.110 4.111 4.112 4.113 4.114 4.115 4.116 4.117 4.118 4.119 4.120 4.121 4.122 4.123 4.124 4.125 4.126 4.127 4.128 4.129 4.130 4.131 4.132 4.133 4.134 4.135 4.136 4.137 4.138 4.139 4.140 4.141 Ben Abdelkader, R. (1977). Peace Corps English-Tunisian Arabic Dictionary.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedcota - ↑ 6.0 6.1 Brustad, K. (2000). The syntax of spoken Arabic: A comparative study of Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian, and Kuwaiti dialects. Georgetown University Press.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
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<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedbrik - ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 (in French) Marçais, W. (1908). Le dialecte arabe des Ulad Brahim de Saîda. Paris: BNF, pp. 101–102
- ↑ (in German) Holger Preissler: Die Anfänge der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. In: Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 145/2, Hubert, Göttingen 1995.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 (in German) Guddat, T. H. (Ed.). (2010). Das Gebetbuch für Muslime. Verlag Der Islam.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 (in German) Stumme, H. (1896). Grammatik des tunisischen Arabisch, nebst Glossar. Leipzig: Henrichs.
- ↑ (in German) Stumme, H. (1893). Tunisische Maerchen und Gedichte.. (Vol. 1). JC Hinrichs.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 (in French) Marçais, W., & Guîga, A. (1925). Textes arabes de Takroûna (Vol. 2). Éditions E. Leroux.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 (in French) Marçais, W., & Farès, J. (1933). Trois textes arabes d'El-Hâmma de Gabès. Impr. nationale.
- ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 21.10 (in French) Marçais, P. (1977). Esquisse grammaticale de l'arabe maghrébin. Langues d'Amerique et d'Orient, Paris, Adrien Maisonneuve. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "marcaisp" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ (in French) Marçais, P., & Hamrouni, M. S. (1977). Textes d'arabe maghrébin. J. Maisonneuve.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 (in French) Cohen, D. (1970). Les deux parlers arabes de Tunis. Notes de phonologie comparée. In his Études de linguistique semitique et arabe, 150(7). Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "cohend" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 24.0 24.1 (in French) Nicolas, A. (1911). Dictionnaire français-arabe: idiome tunisien. J. Saliba & Cie.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 (in German) Brockelmann, C. (eds.). Die Transliteration der arabischen Schrift in ihrer Anwendung auf die Hauptliteratursprachen der islamischen Welt. Denkschrift dem 19. Internationalen Orientalistenkongreß in Rom. vorgelegt von der Transkriptionskommission der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1935.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedborisg - ↑ (in German) Singer, H. R. (1994). Ein arabischer Text aus dem alten Tunis. Semitische Studien unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Südsemitistik, 275–284.
- ↑ (in French) Saada, L. (1964). Caractéristiques du parler arabe de l'île de Djerba (Tunisie). Groupe Linguistique d'Études Chamito-Sémitiques 10: 15–21.
- ↑ (in French) Saada, L. (1984). Eléments de description du parler arabe de Tozeur, Tunisie: phonologie, morphologie, syntaxe. Paris: Geuthner Diff.
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- ↑ 31.00 31.01 31.02 31.03 31.04 31.05 31.06 31.07 31.08 31.09 31.10 31.11 31.12 31.13 31.14 31.15 31.16 31.17 31.18 31.19 31.20 31.21 31.22 31.23 31.24 31.25 31.26 31.27 31.28 31.29 31.30 Scholes, R. J., & Abida, T. (1966). Spoken Tunisian Arabic (Vol. 2). Indiana University
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- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedeltw - ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 35.6 Inglefield, P. L. (1970). Tunisian Arabic Basic Course. Volumes 1 and 2.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 (in French) Jourdan, J. (1952). Cours pratique et complet d'arabe vulgaire, grammaire et vocabulaire: dialecte tunisien, 1. année. C. Abela.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 (in French) Messaoudi, A. (2013). Progrès de la science, développement de l'enseignement secondaire et affirmation d'une " méthode directe " (1871–1930). in Larzul, S., & Messaoudi, A. (2013). Manuels d'arabe d'hier et d'aujourd'hui : France et Maghreb, XIXe-XXIe siècle. Paris : Éditions de la Bibliothèque nationale de France. ISBN 978-2-7177-2584-1.
- ↑ (in French) Jourdan, J. (1913). Cours normal et pratique d'arabe vulgaire. Vocabulaire, historiettes, proverbes, chants. Dialecte tunisien. Mme. veuve L. Namura.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 (in French) Battesti, Vincent (2005). Jardins au désert: Évolution des pratiques et savoirs oasiens: Jérid tunisien. Paris: IRD éditions. ISBN 978-2-7177-2584-1.
- ↑ (in French) Jourdan, J. (1937). Cours normal et pratique d'arabe vulgaire. Vocabulaire, historiettes, proverbes, chants. Dialecte tunisien, 2 me année. Mme. veuve L. Namura.
- ↑ (in French) Jourdan, J. (1956). Cours pratique d'Arabe dialectal. C. Abela.
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedsayahi - ↑ 43.0 43.1 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedcurr - ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedvolkme - ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 Masmoudi, A., Habash, N., Ellouze, M., Estève, Y., & Belguith, L. H. (2015). Arabic Transliteration of Romanized Tunisian Dialect Text: A Preliminary Investigation. In Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing (pp. 608–619). Springer International Publishing. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "pluT" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ Gelbukh, A. (2011). Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing. Springer.
- ↑ Saghbini, S., & Zaidi, R. (2011). Changing the Face of Arabic. Language Magazine, August 2011, pp. 31–36
- ↑ (in French) Cifoletti, G. (2009). Italianismes dans les dialectes arabes (surtout Égyptien et Tunisien). Romanisierung in Afrika: der Einfluss des Französischen, Italienischen, Portugiesischen und Spanischen auf die indigenen Sprachen Afrikas
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Mohamed, R., Farrag, M., Elshamly, N., & Abdel-Ghaffar, N. (2011). Summary of Arabizi or Romanization: The dilemma of writing Arabic texts
- ↑ Bacha, M. (2013), Tunisian Arabic in 24 Lessons. Amazon.com. First Edition
- ↑ Lewis, M. P., Simons, G. F., & Fennig, C. D. (2016). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (Vol. 19). Dallas, TX: SIL international.
- ↑ Bies, A., Song, Z., Maamouri, M., Grimes, S., Lee, H., Wright, J., ... & Rambow, O. (2014). Transliteration of Arabizi into Arabic Orthography: Developing a Parallel Annotated Arabizi-Arabic Script SMS/Chat Corpus. ANLP 2014, 93.
- ↑ Farrag, M. (2012). Arabizi: a writing variety worth learning? an exploratory study of the views of foreign learners of Arabic on Arabizi. (American University of Cairo, M.Sc. Thesis)
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 UNESCO Organization (1978). Memorandum on the Transcription and Harmonization of African Languages. The 1978 UNESCO meeting on the transcription and harmonization of African Languages, June 1978
- ↑ Goscinny, R., & Sempé, J.-J. (2013). Le Petit Nicolas en arabe maghrébin. (D. Caubet, Trans.) Paris: IMAV éditions.
- ↑ Choura, A. (1993). Competency Based Language Education Curriculum Guide.[Tunisian Arabic.].
- ↑ 57.00 57.01 57.02 57.03 57.04 57.05 57.06 57.07 57.08 57.09 57.10 57.11 57.12 57.13 57.14 57.15 57.16 57.17 57.18 57.19 57.20 57.21 57.22 57.23 57.24 57.25 57.26 57.27 57.28 57.29 57.30 57.31 57.32 57.33 57.34 57.35 57.36 57.37 57.38 57.39 57.40 57.41 57.42 57.43 57.44 57.45 57.46 57.47 57.48 57.49 57.50 57.51 57.52 57.53 57.54 57.55 57.56 57.57 57.58 57.59 57.60 57.61 57.62 57.63 57.64 57.65 57.66 57.67 57.68 57.69 57.70 57.71 57.72 57.73 57.74 57.75 57.76 57.77 57.78 57.79 57.80 57.81 57.82 57.83 57.84 57.85 57.86 57.87 57.88 57.89 57.90 57.91 57.92 Ben Abdelkader, R., & Naouar, A. (1979). Peace Corps/Tunisia Course in Tunisian Arabic.
- ↑ Amor, T. B. (1990). A Beginner's Course in Tunisian Arabic.
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- ↑ Buckwalter, T. (2002). Arabic transliteration.
- ↑ Maamouri, M., Graff, D., Jin, H., Cieri, C., & Buckwalter, T. (2004). Dialectal Arabic Orthography‐based Transcription. In EARS RT‐04 Workshop.
- ↑ Habash, N., Diab, M. T., & Rambow, O. (2012). Conventional Orthography for Dialectal Arabic. In LREC (pp. 711‐718).
- ↑ Habash, N., Roth, R., Rambow, O., Eskander, R., & Tomeh, N. (2013). Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Dialectal Arabic. In HLT‐NAACL(pp. 426‐432).
- ↑ Zribi, I., Graja, M., Khmekhem, M. E., Jaoua, M., & Belguith, L. H. (2013). Orthographic transcription for spoken tunisian arabic. In Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing (pp. 153–163). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
- ↑ Zribi, I., Khemakhem, M. E., & Belguith, L. H. (2013). Morphological Analysis of Tunisian Dialect. In proceeding of the International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing, Nagoya, Japan (pp. 992–996).
- ↑ Lawson, D. R. (2008). An Evaluation of Arabic transliteration methods. School of Information and Library Science, North Carolina.
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- ↑ 69.00 69.01 69.02 69.03 69.04 69.05 69.06 69.07 69.08 69.09 69.10 69.11 69.12 69.13 69.14 69.15 69.16 69.17 69.18 69.19 69.20 69.21 69.22 69.23 69.24 69.25 69.26 69.27 69.28 69.29 69.30 69.31 69.32 69.33 69.34 69.35 69.36 69.37 69.38 69.39 69.40 69.41 69.42 69.43 69.44 69.45 69.46 69.47 69.48 69.49 69.50 69.51 69.52 69.53 69.54 69.55 69.56 69.57 69.58 69.59 69.60 69.61 69.62 69.63 69.64 69.65 69.66 69.67 69.68 69.69 69.70 69.71 69.72 69.73 69.74 69.75 69.76 69.77 69.78 69.79 69.80 69.81 69.82 69.83 69.84 69.85 69.86 69.87 69.88 69.89 69.90 69.91 Chekili, F. (1982). The morphology of the Arabic dialect of Tunis (Doctoral dissertation, University of London).
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 70.4 Khalfaoui, A. (2007). A cognitive approach to analyzing demonstratives in Tunisian Arabic. Amesterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science Series 4, 290, 169.
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- ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 76.3 Saddour, I. (2009). The expression of progressivity in Tunisian Arabic: A study of progressive markers in oral retellings of simultaneous situations. Revue de Sémantique et Pragmatique, 25(Espace temps, Interprétations spatiales/Interprétations temporelles?), 265-280.
- ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 77.3 (in Italian) Mion, Giuliano (2004) "Osservazioni sul sistema verbale dell'arabo di Tunisi" Rivista degli Studi Orientali 78, pp. 243–255.
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 Talmoudi, F. (1986). A Morphosemantic Study of Romance Verbs in the Arabic Dialects of Tunis, Susa and Sfax: Part I: Derived Themes, II, III, V, VI and X (Vol. 9). Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.
- ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 79.3 79.4 Hammett, S. (2014). Irregular verbs in Maltese and their counterparts in the Tunisian and Moroccan dialects. Romano-Arabica, Vol. XIV, 193-209.
- ↑ (in French) Tilmatine Mohand, Substrat et convergences: Le berbére et l'arabe nord-africain (1999), in Estudios de dialectologia norteafricana y andalusi 4, pp 99–119
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- ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 82.3 82.4 82.5 Wilmsen, D. (2014). Arabic Indefinites, Interrogatives, and Negators: A Linguistic History of Western Dialects. Oxford University Press.
- ↑ Owens, J. (2010). What is a Language?: Review of Bernard Comrie, Ray Fabri, Elizabeth Hume, Manwel Mifsud, Thomas Stolz & Martine Vanhove (eds.),'Introducing Maltese Linguistics. Selected papers from the 1st International Conference on Maltese Linguistics, Bremen, 18–20 October. 2007, 2009. XI, 422 pages. Studies in Language Companion Series 113. Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Journal of Language Contact, 3(1), 103-118.
- ↑ Meftouh, K., Bouchemal, N., & Smaïli, K. (2012, May). A study of a non-resourced language: an Algerian dialect. In SLTU (pp. 125-132).
- ↑ Shimron, I. (2003). Language Processing and Acquisition in Languages. Amesterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company, pp. 116-129.
- ↑ Daniels, P. T. (1997). Phonologies of Asia and Africa: Including the Caucasus. A. S. Kaye (Ed.). Eisenbrauns.
- ↑ Kilani-Schoch, M., & Dressler, W. U. (1984). Natural morphology and classical vs. Tunisian Arabic. Wiener Linguistische Gazette, 33(34), 51-68.
- ↑ Xanthos, A. (2008). Apprentissage automatique de la morphologie: Le cas des structures racine-schème (Vol. 88). Peter Lang.
- ↑ Gabsi, Z. (2003). An outline of the Shilha (Berber) vernacular of Douiret (Southern Tunisia) (Doctoral dissertation, Univ. of Western Sydney Sydney).
- ↑ Caubet, D. (2001). Maghrebine Arabic in France. Multilingual Matters, 261-278.
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