WikiJournal Preprints/Orhan Gazi, the first statesman

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First submitted: 20 Mar 2022
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QID: Q111719531

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Suggested (provisional) preprint citation format:
Bassem Fleifel. "Orhan Gazi, the first statesman". WikiJournal Preprints. Wikidata Q111719531. 

License: This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction, provided the original author and source are credited.

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Rama Aziz Draz
Imad Jamil Ghamloush

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Abstract

Orhan Gazi, son of Osman I, was the second Bey of the independent Kayı Turkic Beylik founded by his father during the late 13^th / early 14^th century, after the collapse of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm. Arguably, he is considered the founder of the Ottoman empire having accomplished many remarkable achievements during his reign, most notably creating the Janissary corps. Based on his innovations, the Kayı Turks turned from border governors into empire builders.

Introduction

 Sultan Orhan (Ūrkhān) Gazi.

Konstantin Kapıdağlı/PD-old

Orhan Gazi or Orhan Bey (full form: Al-Malik al-Mujāhid wa-al-Sulṭān al-Ghāzī Shujāʻ al-Dīn wa-al-Dunyā Ūrkhān Khān bin ʻUthmān bin Ertuğrul al-Qayawi al-Turkumānī) was the second Bey of the independent Kayı Turkic Beylik founded by his father Osman during the late 13^th / early 14^th century, after the collapse of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm. Although Orhan never hold the title of “Sultan” and was only known as “Bey” or “Emir”, he is generally viewed as the second Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

It is not known whether Orhan was the eldest son of Osman, or if the title passed to his brother Alâeddin Bey first. Based on the late scripts, Alâeddin Bey has given up the crown and military conquests to his brother, in favour of handling administrative affairs of the state. On the other hand, it is highly possible that Orhan was chosen to inherit the leadership of the Beylik because of his martial skills and leading talents. According to Ottoman traditions, Orhan is most likely the son of Malhun Hatun, daughter of Sheikh Edebali. Thus, Orhan and Alâeddin Bey were probably siblings, descendants from the same mother.

After the death of his father, around 724 AH / 1324 CE, Orhan comes into power. His reign extended for nearly 35 years, covering the expansion of the Kayı Osmanic Beylik westward, absorbing several neighbouring lands, including the last Byzantine in Asia Minor. Under Orhan's leadership, the Ottomans defeated the Byzantines led by Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos at the Battle of Pelekanon conquering what remains of Byzantine castles and fortresses in western and north-west Anatolia. Then, Orhan turned his attention towards his Muslim neighbours, annexing the Beylik of Karasi after an internal conflict erupted between the two sons of the Beylik's late Emir.

Orhan also benefited from the family strife and civil war in the Byzantine Empire. The instability occurred after the death of Emperor Andronikos III followed by the accession of the nine-year-old John V, as a de facto emperor supported by his mother, Anna of Savoy, who was appointed as a regent. On the other hand, John VI Kantakouzenos asked the Ottomans for help against the supporters of the young legitimate emperor. In exchange for these services, John VI allowed Orhan to enslave Greek Christians in wars and offered him his daughter Theodora for a marriage.

The Ottoman-Byzantine alliance was restored in the Byzantine civil war of 1352–1357. Supported by Ottoman forces, John Kantakouzenos defeated John V. However, Kantakouzenos had to grant the Ottomans the use of a European fortress at Çimpe on the Gallipoli peninsula around 1352 CE.

From an Islamic history point of view, Orhan's reign is distinguished by two major achievements: the first settlement of Muslims in Eastern Europe and the establishment of the Janissary Corps, a new military system that is considered to be the first modern standing army. Regarding the first achievement, Sulāymān Paşa, Orhan's son, benefited from a natural disaster that stroke Gallipoli occupying the town and the rest of the Gallipoli peninsula. By achieving this, the Ottomans gained a bridgehead in mainland Europe, making this the first Islamic settlement in the Balkansand the first step towards conquering conquring Constantinople. Regarding the second achievement, the Janissary Corps, which rose in power in the following centuries to become one of the greatest armies in both the Muslim world and Christendom.

Additionally, during this time, the Kayı Beylik emerged from a marginal border state to become a true local power, extending from Ankara to Thrace. During his lifetime, Orhan expanded the lands inherited from his father six times more and established administrative structures for his young state.

Orhan had the longest lifespan of any other Ottoman Sultan, being nearly 81 years old when he died. Follwing his father's way of life, Orhan lived an ascetic life closer to that of Sufis. When Muslim scholar and explorer Ibn Battuta visited Anatolia in the 14^th century, he described Orhan saying: “he is the greatest of the Turkmen kings and the richest in wealth, lands, and military forces. He controls more than a hundred fortresses which he regularly checks and resides in each one for days to look into its affairs”. Another account describing Orhan is that of 16^th century Damascan historian Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf Al-Qaramānī: “...And he, may God have mercy on him, was a great king, with a good appearance, a satisfactory life, abundant generosity and justice. He built a mosque and a madrasa in İznik, which was the first to be built in the Ottoman Empire”.

Before ascending to the throne

Early life

 Orhan Gazi as a young man. Portriat from Pauli Iovii Novocomensis episcopi Nucerini Vitae illustrium virorum

Paolo Giovio/PD-old

Very little is known about Orhan's youth and early life before he succeeded his father in ruling the Kayı beylik. His date of birth is also disputed, as some sources, contemporary to the sultan, such as the “Menâkıb-ı Orhânî” (The Orhanid virtues), claim that Orhan was born around 687 - 688 AH / 1280 - 1281 CE, and that he had 80 years lifespan. Some late sources, such as Kitāb Jāmiʻ al-duwal agree that his birth year was 1281 CE. Other late sources also claim the year to be1274, 1279, or 1287 CE.

There are no recorded accounts of Orhan's childhood and youth, including his upbringing and education, it's not known if he was illiterate. Orhan's first historical mention was related to his marriage with Holophira, whose name was later changed to Nilüfer Hatun, the daughter of Yarhisar's Byzantine Tekfur (governor), around 1298 CE.

Orhan's name appeared again in the historical record in 1300 CE, when he participated in the siege and conquest of Köprühisar, and was rewarded the title of Uç beyliği or Uç bey (literally: marcher-lord) of Karacahisar. Soon afterwards, Osman Bey appointed his son as the commander of the small Emirate's army with the rank of emir-i kebir (Arabic: أمير كبير = Grand Emir or Beylerbeyi). From that time forward, Orhan participated in all of his father's military campaigns and conquests.

Conquest of Bursa

 Gate of Bursa's Byzantine castle, which witnessed the long Ottoman siege.

Citrat/CC-BY-SA-3.0-migrated GFDL

In his final years, Osman Bey focused his efforts on conquering the large remaining, but isolated, Byzantine cities, starting with Bursa. Osman gave the orders to start building two forts overseeing and surrounding the city. Then, after the construction was completed, he charged the forts with large garrisons tightening the blockade and preventing any provisions from reaching Bursa. The Ottoman siege lasted between six and nine years, this was since the Ottomans had no Siege engines and they had never captured a large fortified city before.

During the long siege, Osman conquered the smaller Byzantine fortresses in the vicinity of the beylik, in which Several tekfurs acknowledged Osman's sovereignty showing allegiance, some of them accepted Islam in the process. Soon after that, Osman started suffering from Gout, and couldn't accompany his men anymore in campaigns, so he entrusted his son Orhan to complete the siege of Bursa. In this context, Orhan's continued the siege avoiding direct conflict and focusing on isolating Bursa from its surrounding forts. For example, he conquered Mudanya to cut off the city's connection to the sea, and captured the city of Praenetos on the southern coast of İzmit, changing its name to Karamürsel, after the Muslim leader who took it “Karamürsel Bey”. The last fort to fall was Beyce, which was considered Bursa's key as it overlooked it, and it was renamed Orhaneli.

Orhan tightened the blockade around Bursa till its garrison fell into despair. Soon, the Byzantine emperor realized that the fall of the city into Muslim hands was inevitable. Thus, he made a difficult decision ordering his governor to evacuate the city. Orhan entered Bursa on 2 Jumādā al-ʾŪlā 726 AH / 6 April 1326 CE, its people were not harmed after they recognized Ottoman sovereignty and pledged to pay Jizyah. Saroz, the garrison's leader, surrendered to Orhan and pledged allegiance to his father Osman. He also converted to Islam and was given the title of “Bey” out of respect for his courage and patience during the long siege. According to some sources, Osman passed away just before the fall of the city. However, other sources suggest that he lived long enough to hear the news of victory on his deathbed.

Ascension to the throne

According to the sources claiming that Osman lived to hear of the fall of Bursa, Orhan rushed back to Söğüt to inform his father of his great victory. Once he reached it, he was immediately summoned to Osman, who was on his deathbed. Soon after the news reached Osman, he passed away for natural causes. Although Orhan was not Osman's firstborn, Osman managed to name him to be his successor according to these sources. As the late Emir believed that Orhan better fits to rule compared with his elder brother Alâeddin, who was more passive and pious than Orhan. However, Some Modern sources also agree that Orhan was probably chosen to inherit the leadership of the Beylik because of his martial skills.

According to some sources, Osman left a written will to his son Orhan instructing him to move on with conquests and jihad against the Byzantines, that he abides by the teachings of Islam, accompany the ʿUlamāʾ, amend his parish, and dedicates himself to spread the word of Islam:

 Map showing the area of the Kayı Beylik at the death of Osman Bey and upon Orhan's ascension.

DragonTiger23/cc-by-sa-3.0 GFDL

In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful

My Son: Never be concerned with something that God, Lord of the Worlds, has not commanded, and if you encounter a dilemma in your ruling, follow the advice of religious scholars. Son: Honor those who follow you and accept your rule, bestow possessions upon your soldiers, allow not Satan to deceive you with your soldiers and your kingdom, and never stray far from the people of the sharīʿah. My son: know that our goal is to gain God's grace, and that through jihad that the light of our religion shall pervade and shine to all horizons. My son: We are not among those who start wars seeking the lust of ruling a land or controlling its people, for we live by Islam, and by Islam, we die. And this, my son, is what I know you are capable of doing. Know, my son, that spreading the word of Islam, guiding people to it, and protecting the Muslims families and possessions, is the task I entrust to you, and that God Almighty will ask you about it [on Judgment day].

My son: I pass on next to our Almighty Lord, proud and certain that you will be fair and just with your people, striving in the path of God, to spread the religion of Islam. My son: protect the scholars of the Ummah, maintain their care, venerate them, and listen to their advice, for they only command benevolence. My son: Do not do something that does not satisfy God Almighty, and if you faced any difficulties then ask the ʿUlamāʾ, for they will guide you to the right path. And know, my son, that our only path in this world is that of God, our only intention is to spread God's religion, that we are neither fortune nor worldly possessions seekers. My will to my children and companions: persist in transcending Islam, hold high its honourable banner, carry the tawḥīd to the furthest of lands. [May] whoever of my lineage deviates from the path of truth and justice be deprived of our Prophet's intercession. My son: all in this world shall be subjected to death, and my life has come to its end by the command of God, I surrender and entrust this state to you, and bid you farewell, seek justice in all your affairs.

 Young Orhan Bey on his Takht. A miniature from the Hünernâme.

Nakkaş Osman/PD-Art (PD-old-100)

According to the classical narration of early Ottoman historians, such as: Âşıkpaşazâde, Oruç Bey bin Âdil, Mehmed Neşrî, and Ibn Kemal (Kemalpaşazâde), the Kayı beylik's notables held a meeting soon after Osman's death to choose a successor among his sons. In this meeting, Orhan nominated his brother Alâeddin to become the new Emir, but the latter refused, saying that Orhan is a better fit to lead their people, and he should be the one ascending to the throne. Orhan reportedly said to his brother: “Since, my brother, thou will not take the flocks and the herds that I offer thee, be thou the shepherd of my people; be my Vizier”. Thus, Alâeddin is considered to be the first Sadrazam (Arabic & Ottoman Turkish: صَدر أَعْظَم) in the Ottoman history. He was also the first member of the Ottoman dynasty to use the title “Paşa”. Since then, this title passed to all later viziers. Prior to that, Paşa was only used by the ʿUlamāʾ and sheikhs of the late Seljuk period. Byzantine historian Laonikos Halkokondilis states, without citing his source, that when Osman bey died, Orhan retreated to Mount Uludağ where he gathered his worriors and went back to fight his brothers: Pazarlı Bey, Çoban Bey, Hamid Bey, Melik Bey and Savcı Bey, as well as Alâeddin. Having defeated them, he took the throne by force. In another account, Ottoman historian Ibn Kemal says that Orhan was chosen by the leaders of the Ahyan Rûm brotherhood to lead the Kayı beylik: “The brotherhood's heads and notables saw Uluğ's son Orhan worthy of leadership”. In all cases, the first Ottoman coin bearing Orhan's name was minted in the month of Rabīʽ al-Awwal 724 AH / February 1324 CE. It provides undeniable evidence that Orhan was the Bey at the latest on this date.

The agreement on Orhan's ascension to the throne was one of the most important achievements of the Ottomans in that period of their history. Since they were able to overpass the death of their great leader without breaking the bonds that linked their beylik together. This was a major shift from the Turkic and Mongol tradition followed in surrounding Turkmen emirates. According to these traditions, when the local bey or Emir dies, his power is divided among his children. Thus, Orhan inherited a unified state but with no laws, currency, or clear borders, surrounded by much stronger neighbours. In the years that followed, Orhan had to set the foundation of his young emirate, expand at the expense of his neighbours, and transform his clan into a nation.

Formation of the Janissary Corps

 A Nogai Turkic horseman, similar to the early Ottoman horsemen during the reign of Osman bey and his son Orhan.

Jean Victor Adam/PD-old

When Orhan ascended to the throne, the new emir was concerned with organizing his emirate tightly. Thus, he started his reign enacting laws and making necessary regulations needed to protect his lands from his neighbours' potential aggressions. Realizing that the burdens placed upon his Beylik were greater than its capabilities, Orhan started building a standing army, that was destined to be the first modern army of its type in Europe.

When the Kayı beylik was established, it had no regular army. Thus, the burden of all the first conquests fell on the shoulders of the Mujāhidīn, warriors seeking spoils, and the different groups of Dervishes. All previous groups were horsemen used to gather in a specific place whenever summoned, soon after that, they march to battle led by their local chieftains under the banner of the beylik's Emir. Once the fighting ends, members of these groups used to split up and go back to perform their regular professions.

Ever since the Ottomans appeared in history, they adopted a feudal system aimed to provide a stable source of warriors and to avoid the expenses of a permanent regular army. The core of this system is that each feudal lord benefits from lands given by the Emir. In return, he is to answer when summoned to war, supplying the army of Emir with a number of warriors, Mujāhidīn and equipped horsemen commensurating with the area of his fief. Based on this System, Vizier Alâeddin Paşa established a regular permanent army comprised of feudal warriors. The army consists of units varying in size: tens, hundreds, and thousands. Alâeddin also allocated one-fifth of the conquest spoils to be spent on the army, and established special centres in which soldiers are to be trained.

However, Alâeddine's efforts were not sufficient to transform the Turkic horsemen into foot soldiers. Thus, Orhan realized, through his military experience, that there is a need for an army of infantries by which conquering castles and storming impregnable fortresses is possible. Prior to that, Orhan suffered from the delay of the feudal horsemen reaching the battlefield at a specified time, and their inability to carry out long sieges, as well as that they were unreliable in military operations taking place far from their fiefs.

 The front page of a 1891 edition of Siyāsatnāmeh. According to some sources, it influenced Orhan bey to create a permanent standing army for his beylik

Charles Henri Auguste Schefer/PD-old

Alâeddin Paşa also considered another noticeable matter among the beylik's warriors: the partisanship of soldier groups to the clan into which they belong. This problem was the main reason that prompted Alâeddin Paşa to seek other solutions while building the beylik's regular army. According to some sources, the answer came from kadıasker Çandarlı Kara Halil Hayreddin Paşa. He advised using non-Turkic and non-Muslim infantrymen, suggesting that the state takes one-fifth of the Byzantine youth prisoners of war in return for the tax due on them based on the law of the fifth issued during the reign of Orhan. The kadıasker also suggested that the orphan and homeless Byzantine and European children be taken and separated from everything that reminds them of their people and origins. Then, they are to be raised according to the Islamic traditions till this religion solidifies in their hearts and souls. During this period and until orphans and the homeless reach the appropriate age for military service, they are subjected to hard training aimed at strengthening their bodies and getting them used to harsh living. Following this way, a new class of soldiers would be created, they know no other profession except war, and have no father figure except the Emir or Bey. Orhan was endeared by this idea as well as his brother Alâeddin Paşa. It is worth mentioning that this manner of recruitment, known as the “Ghilmān tax”, was only restricted to the Eastern Orthodox Christian subjects of the Kayı beylik, perhaps because they constituted the vast majority of the subjects of the Byzantine Empire, and thus, the areas conquered by Muslims.

Some narrations also suggested that Orhan came to know about Siyāsatnāmeh (Persian: سیاست‌نامه), a book written by the Seljuk vizier Mamluks. In this book, vizier Nizam mentioned that the best way to create a fighting force of Turkic Mamluks is through raising them on the basis of Islamic ideals, and then, after this step is achieved, the Mamluks can enter into the service of the royal palaces and various government departments. Influenced by this idea, Orhan was determined to apply it in his own domain.

In 731 AH / 1330 CE, Orhan started establishing his country's new army. He housed the young orphans and homeless boys in special barracks, known singularly as “Oda” (Ottoman Turkish: اوطه). The children were given basic military training in an academy known as “Ocak” (Ottoman Turkish: اوجاق). Orhan also enacted a law that included fourteen articles defining the internal system and regulating the relations of the army individuals with each other, as well as stipulating the obligation of absolute obedience and complete submission to the Emir. These boys were also forbidden to marry or mix with society, as their only purpose in life was to defend Islam, Muslims, and the bey (Sultan later). A well-known story states that once Orhan had a significant number of these soldiers, he led them toward Amasya, where Ḥājī Baktāš Walī, the famous sufi, philosopher, and sheikh of the Bektaşi Order resides. There, Orhan asked the sheikh for his Duʿāʾ and blessings for the young soldiers. It is reported that Ḥājī Baktāš prayed for them saying: “May Allah clears your hearts, strengthen your arms, sharpen your swords, and bless you with victories”. Then he said: “Let them be called Yeniçeri” (Ottoman Turkish: يڭيچرى; anglicized as Janissary = new soldier).

 A Janissary flag.

Mahmud Şevket Paşa/PD-old-70

Some historians question the authenticity of Orhan's journey to Ḥājī Baktāš, even denying it. These historians' criticism is based on the grounds that this Sufi sheikh died several years before the establishment of the Janissaries. Thus, it's more likely that one of his successors was the one who blessed them.

The banner of the new Corp was made of red cloth, with a The banner of the new Corp was made of red cloth, with a crescent in the middle, depicted under it a sword called “Ḏūlfaqār” (Arabic: ذُو ٱلْفَقَار‎), named after the sword of the Rashidun Caliph, Imam ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib. In the following years, Orhan increased the numbers of his army as a response to the rising tensions between his beylik and its neighbours, especially the Byzantines, due to his multiple conquests. Soon, the Kayı army increased in number, reaching several thousand, and was divided into groups of tens, hundreds, and thousands, headed by an Onbaşı (اونباشى), Yüzbaşı (يوزباشى), and Binbaşı (بكباشى), respectively.

These regulations made the Ottoman army the first standing army of regularly-paid disciplined infantry and horsemen, a full century before Charles VII of France established his fifteen permanent companies of men-at-arms, which were generally regarded as the first modern standing army.

Conquests in Anatolia

Conquering the Marmara Coast

Orhan earned the title of Ghazi, during the life of his father Osman, after having conquered Mudanya and Bursa as previously mentioned. Early in his reign, following his father's will, Orhan ordered Osman's body to be transferred to the aforementioned city and to be buried there. Some sources stated that the will includes the following: “My Son, when I die, bury me under that silver dome in Bursa”.

Orhan spent the first period of his reign preoccupied with his conquests in Anatolia. During this period, he was still a follower of the Mongol Ilkhan in Iran, like the rest of the Anatolian Turkmen emirates, paying an annual tax to the Ilkhanate. However, the Kayı beylik had, by that time, gained fame and a powerful reputation in the Mongol court because of its attacks and raids on the Byzantine lands. Orhan also owed allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph residing in Cairo.

Both Nicomedia and Nicaea became a target for Orhan during his early reign, he also seized the Bithynia peninsula in the far north, as well as the fortified castles of Samandara and Abydos, which guarded the road between Constantinople and Nicomedia. With Abydos in his hands, Orhan began his preparations to seize Nicaea.

Battle of Pelekanon

 14^th century miniature of Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos, leader of the Byzantines at Pelekanon.

Unknown/PD-old-100

During the period between 1305 and 1329 AD, the Kayı Turks settled east of Adapazarı and Sapanca and became close to Constantinople. This meant that Nicomedia and Nicaea were now surrounded from all sides and their fall into Muslim hands was just a matter of time. Nicaea, in particular, was ready to surrender because of the famine, after being cut off from the rest of the Byzantine lands, especially after the conquest of Bursa, which was its vital artery. Meanwhile, the Muslims, after capturing the areas surrounding lake Askania, were preparing to make a final decisive assault to conquer Nicaea and Nicomedia under the leadership of Orhan. In this situation, the Byzantines understood that it is a matter of life and death now.

In the meantime, Emperor Andronikos III ascended the Byzantine throne. He immediately sought to save Nicaea and to stop the Ottoman from rushing the capital, hoping to restore stability and stagnation to the Islamic-Byzantine frontier. Together with the Grand Domestic John Kantakouzenos, Andronikos led an army of about 4,000 men, the greatest number he could muster. On 2 Sha'ban 729 H / 1 June 1329 CE, the two leaders marched along the Sea of Marmara towards Nicomedia. On the other hand, at Pelekanon, a Turkic army, led by Orhan was encamping on the hills to gain a strategic advantage and to block the road to Nicomedia.

On 11 Sha'ban / 10 June, Orhan sent 300 cavalry archers downhill to lure the Byzantines unto the hills, but the cavalry was driven off by the Byzantines, who were unwilling to advance further. The belligerent armies engaged in indecisive clashes until nightfall. The Byzantine army looked for a chance to retreat, but the Turks gave them none. Both Andronikos and Kantakouzenos were lightly wounded, while rumours spread that the Emperor had either been killed or mortally wounded, resulting in panic. Eventually, the retreat turned into a rout with heavy casualties on the Byzantine side.

Kantakouzenos led the remaining Byzantine soldiers back to Constantinople by sea. The Turkic army chased the remnants of the defeated Byzantines fleeing to Philcorin, a small coastal city, where they killed some of the remnant soldiers and imprisoned the rest. In this battle, Orhan lost only 275 soldiers, and the Muslims looted the imperial pavilion and captured the Byzantine banners. Emperor Andronikos was apprehensive after this defeat, so he asked Orhan to discuss peace terms.

The defeat at Pelekanon killed the Byzantine hope in holding the lines at Nicaea. As a result, the emperor stopped resisting the Muslims in Anatolia and did not invest in reinforcing the remaining Byzantine garrisons there. There is also no doubt that Orhan's victory and his subsequent conquest of Nicaea were comparable to the conquest of Constantinople, a near century later. It was a turning point in the Ottoman-Byzantine relations, that is, Orhan has no longer any barriers preventing him from seizing Nicaea, and then Nicomedia. The victory at Pelekanon also led to the annexation of all the small castles on the Marmara coast to the Kayı beylik, including Gebze and Haraka. Additionally, as Anatolian fortresses and castles fell into ottoman hands, the Islamic efforts were now to be shifted towards Constantinople.

Orhan's fame reached the different Islamic sates in the Near East after this victory, resulting in the establishment of good relations with the first Jalayiri sultan, Ḥasan Buzurg, as well as the Abbasid Caliph in Cairo, Abû Al-Rabî` Sulāymān Al-Mustakfī bi-Allâh. The Caliph bestowed upon him many honorific titles: Sultan Al-Ghuzāt (سُلطان الغُزاة = Sultan of the conquers), Al-Ghazi ibn Al-Ghazi (الغازي ابن الغازي = the conquerer son of a conquerer), Shujāʻ al-Dīn (شُجاعُ الدين = Hero of the faith), Ikhtiyār Al-Dīn (اختيارُ الدين = the chosen of the faith), and Sayf Al-Dīn (سيفُ الدين = Sword of the Faith).

Siege and Conquest of Nicaea

 Nicea as shown in the Nuremberg Chronicle.

Hartmann Schedel/PD-old

After the Byzantine's defeat at Pelekanon, Orhan tightened his siege on Nicaea. When the inhabitants saw that there was no hope for any relief coming from Constantinople, they knew that the Emperor had abandoned the city. Thus, the city announced surrender, and the gates were opened for the Muslims on 21 Jumādā al-ʾAwwal 731 AH / 2 March 1331 CE. The Turkic conquest of Nicaea brought it back under Islamic rule for the first time since 1097 CE, the year in which the city was recaptured by the Byzantines during the First Crusade.

Orhan showed great leniency and tolerance towards the residents. For example, Orhan gave those who decided to stay complete freedom in practicing Christianity and allowed the others who decided to leave to carry all their belongings. Additionally, people who decide to leave were granted the right to sell their real estate. This treatment prompted many Nicaeans to convert to Islam.

After capturing the city, Orhan ordered the demolished buildings and walls to be repaired and improved upon. He also converted some of the churches into mosques and madrasas and established several new madrasas and zāwayah for the poor and needy, as well as a Waqf for his wife Nilüfer Hatun. Soon, the city regained its important position, especially in manufacturing tile and silk weaving, and it became the most prosperous city of the Kayı Beylik and a centre of Islamic culture.

Orhan appointed his eldest son, Sulāymān Paşa, as governor of Nicaea, but Sulāymān did not last in the position for a long time, as shortly after, he was appointed the new vizier after the death of his uncle Alâeddin. The city's name was changed from Nicaea to “İznik”, and with its fall into Muslim hands, the Byzantine's Empire sovereignty in Asia Minor had practically ended.

Siege of Nicomedia

 Nicomedia's location on the fringes of Anatolia.

San Jose/GFDL-CC-BY-SA-3.0-migrated

Orhan continued his conquests within the Byzantine lands in Asia Minor. He sent a military force in the year 733 AH / 1333 CE, under the leadership of his son Sulāymān Paşa to conquer the areas north of Sakarya River. the campaign was successful in capturing the towns of Göynük, Moderna, and others. After the fall of those castles, the Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor shrank to only a few scattered cities, notably Nicomedia, Philadelphia and Heraclea. The Byzantine Emperor was then subjected to double pressure: the Turkmens and the Serbs. On one hand, the Turkmens, who departed from their coastal principalities on the Aegean Sea, intensified their raids on the Byzantine lands in Europe. On the other hand, the Serbs were also raiding Byzantine possessions in the Balkans. Thus, the Emperor was keen to ensure Orhan's neutrality to devote himself to these two dangers and proceeded to conduct negotiations with him.

By this time, Orhan had laid siege to Nicomedia and began to bombard its walls with catapults. An account of the siege is recorded by Byzantine general (later emperor) John Kantakouzenos. According to Kantakouzenos, he rushed to the aid of the city, and by the time the Byzantine fleet was about to reach Nicomedia, Orhan sent him a messenger informing the Byzantine general that he was ready to withdraw and leave the city if the emperor agreed to his own terms of peace, Orhan also warned Kantakouzenos that he is ready for war if the emperor did not agree upon the terms.

The emperor subjected to Orhan's terms. As a result, a peace treaty was signed between the two parties in the month of Dhu al-Ḥijjah 733 AH / August 1333 CE. The treaty dictated that no more hostilities were to rise between Orhan and the emperor and that the Kayı Turks will no longer make any hostile movements against the Byzantine cities. In return, the Byzantines pledged to pay an annual tribute to Orhan. The latter, as a gesture of goodwill, sent several gifts to the emperor, including purebred Turkmen and Arabian horses, Saluqi hounds, leopard fur and rugs, and in return, he received silver plates, woollen and silk fabrics, and linings of saddlery, along with 12,000 gold coins annually in return for his retreat from Nicomedia.

Annexation of the Karasid Beylik and the Conquest of Nicomedia

 Approximate boundaries of the Karasid beylik and the path of the Kayı armies during their annexation of its lands.

Kürşat/GFDL-CC-BY-2.5-CC-BY-2.0-CC-BY-1.0

On the 15^th of Rabīʿ al-ʾĀkhir 736 AH / 1 December 1335 CE, the last of the Mongol Ilkhans in Iran, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, passed away, which prompted Orhan to declare his beylik's independence from the disintegrating Ilkhanate, becoming a true unsubordinated sultan. As the ablest of the heirs of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, Orhan officially announced that he is the legitimate successor to the vacated Seljuk throne. The positions of the other Turkmen emirates regarding this claim differed, while the Karamanid beylik, which controlled Konya, the seat of the former Sultanate of Rûm, explicitly opposed Orhan's claims. Other emirates continuously shifted alliances between the Karamanids and the Kayıs, either to win their favour, or out of fear of their growing military power.

Orhan's declaration was indicative of the extent of his confidence in his beylik's strength compared to its neighbours, as well as the intention of his emerging state to inherit the governorship of all the lands of Asia Minor that were once part of the Sultanate of Rûm. At the same time, the Kayıs' push towards the west was based on their desire to secure a front on the southern coast of the Marmara Sea, and the location of the Karasid beylik fulfilled this goal, so, Orhan aspired to annex it. The Karasids were at the forefront of the Turkmen emirates that crossed the strait of Çanakkale raiding the Gallipoli peninsula and Thrace in Rumelia, years before their Kayı cousins decided to do so themselves.

The Kayıs began to seize the Karasid lands piece by piece between 1336 and 1361 CE. Demirhan Bey, the Karasid Emir, had previously suggested a unification with Osman Gazi in order to unite the Islamic front against the Byzantines, but that never happened. After Demirhan's death, a dispute arose between his two sons: Tursun and Timurtaş, over the right to the throne. Turson resorted to Orhan hoping for aid against his brother. Orhan did not pass this opportunity to annex the Karasid lands. He concluded a treaty with Turson that stipulated that his country would be annexed entirely to the Kayı beylik, on condition that they leave him the Bahram Castle and the area of “Güzelce - Tuzla” which produces ample amounts of salt. When this treaty was approved, the Karasid beylik became the first Islamic emirate in Anatolia to be annexed by the Kayı Turks, in the year 735 AH / 1334-1335 CE. Thus, the Kayı beylik now had control over the Dardanelles Strait and became the most powerful Turkmen emirate in the region.

After completing the annexation of the Karasid beylik, Orhan turned his attention again to Nicomedia, aspiring to annex it, not caring about the peace treaty concluded with the Byzantines previously. John Kantakouzenos mentioned that during this time, Emperor Andronikos III went out on a long journey with an army to confront the Arnaout (Albanian) rebels, and there was no possibility of his coming to the Nicomedia Peninsula. Kantakouzenos also referred to the city’s ruler at that time who was a princess from the emperor’s family. Orhan did not miss that opportunity and hastened to besiege Nicomedia. By the time Orghan reached there, all the Muslim warriors in the vicinity joined him. The people of the city did not withstand the siege due to a lack of supplies, so the princess decided to surrender and agreed on Orhan's terms.

The agreement stipulated that the inhabitants who choose to leave the city to Constantinople may depart peacefully and that the Kayı army enters the citadel while the Byzantines are abandoning it. Thus, Nicomedia was conquered in the year 737 AH / 1337 CE, and its name was changed to “İzmit”. With its conquest, the Kayı beylik extended from the Asian shores of the Aegean Sea to the shores of the Black Sea in northwestern Anatolia.

Consolidation Period

 Silver coin from Orhan bey's period.
Right: There is no God except Allāh, Muḥammad the Messenger of Allah
Left: Orhan may Allāh immortalize his reign

Unknown/PD-Ottoman

After Annexing the Karasid beylik, Orhan spent twenty years without making any wars. The Emir was actively occupied in refining systems that he and his brother introduced, both civil and marshal. Orhan strengthened his beylik's internal security, built mosques and madrasas, established vast public facilities, organized his young state's administration and army. He also established scholastic institutes all over the beylik, to the degree that every village had its kuttāb, and every major city had its madrasas that taught grammar, logic, Metaphysics, philosophy, architecture, astronomy, in addition to Fiqh, Kalām, Quranic and Hadith studies. Orhan appointed the best available scholars to supervise these institutions. Orhan was keen to consolidate his authority in the lands he annexed. Thus, he worked on imprinting every new land with the civil, marshal, educational and cultural character of the Kayı beylik, turning them into an integral part of his stable domains.

Orhan organized his state in a tight administrative arrangement, dividing it into Sanjaks (Ottoman Turkish: سنجق or سنجاق‎ = districts). Prior to his crossing into Europe, the Sanjaks were: Sultan-öyügü, Hudavendigar-eli, Koca-eli and Karasi-eli. He appointed his son Sulāymān a governor over İzmit, his other son, Murad, a governor over Bursa, and his cousin Gündüz Alp to govern Karacahisar. Additionally, Orhan ordered that silver and gold coins be minted, in the Seljuk style, holding his own name and the name of the Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.

Conquests in Europe

The first crossing to Rumelia

By the time Orhan ascended the throne, the Turkic tribes had already crossed the Dardanelles to Europe several times, without achieving much success or leaving a permanent impact. Therefore, the Byzantine emperor did not consider these raids a serious threat. Yet, these raids grew over time gradually till they developed into organized campaigns at the hands of the Anatolian Turkmen Emirs. It is likely that Umur Bey of Aydın was among the first Emirs that made frequent raids on Byzantine lands in Europe.

Emperor Andronikos III tried to ally with the West to stop the Turkmen advance in general, and the Kayı in particular. Thus, he approached Pope John XXII and convinced him of the necessity of launching a crusade against the Turks. However, it seems that the preoccupation of Western European rulers with their internal and external problems, and the failure of the Byzantine Orthodox clergy to cooperate with the Pope and the Catholic Church, spoiled this project. This gave Orhan a good opportunity, which he successfully exploited, to expand into Europe. In 737 AH / 1337 CE, using a small fleet consisting of thirty-six ships, Orhan tried to attack Constantinople and to gain a foothold in Thrace. Nevertheless, Orhan was defeated.

Decline of Byzantine Empire

 John Kantakouzenos as Emperor, presiding over a synod. His short reign witnessed the deterioration of the Byzantine Empire in an uncharacteristic way.

Unknown/PD-old-100

Emperor Andronikos III died in Constantinople on 30 Dhu al-Ḥijjah 741 AH / 15 June 1341 CE, possibly due to chronic malaria. Soon after his death, the conditions of the Byzantine Empire deteriorated, as a devastating civil war raged between weak leaders who did not consider the vital danger facing their country. Additionally, the Byzantine people suffered a lack of confidence in their leaders. The public lost any hope in the current rulers, who were seeking help from the Turks, one against each other. At the same time, the strength of the Kayı beylik increased, allowing Orhan to completely terminate his previous treaty with Andronikos III. The Emperor's obvious successor was his son John V. However, John was not officially proclaimed or crowned as co-emperor, leading to a legal vacuum and rose a succession crisis.

 Byzantine Empire and surrounding territory in 1355, shortly after the Byzantine–Genoese War.

William Robert Shepherd/PD-1923

According to Byzantine custom, the empress-dowager automatically headed any regency. Nevertheless, despite the lack of any formal appointment, the grand domestic John Kantakouzenos placed Andronikos III's sons and the Empress-dowager Anna of Savoy under armed guard in the palace. He also claimed the regency and governance of the state for himself in a meeting of the Byzantine Senate. Kantakouzenos argued that the right to rule was passed to him by virtue of his close association with the deceased Emperor. He also demanded that John V marry forthwith his own daughter Helena. This claim was disputed by Patriarch John XIV of Constantinople, who presented a document from Andronikos dating from 1334, assigning to him the care of the imperial family in the case of his death. Only after a demonstration of the capital's troops on 20 June, Kantakouzenos did secure recognition as regent and control of the reins of government, as well as maintaining control over the army as its grand domestic.

Nevertheless, opposition to Kantakouzenos began to coalesce around three figures: the Patriarch, the Empress-regent, who feared that Kantakouzenos would dispossess her son, and Alexios Apokaukos, the ambitious Megas doux and head of the bureaucracy. Apokaukos exploited Kantakouzenos's absence from Constantinople in Autumn 1341 and gathered a group of high-ranking aristocrats around him. Then, he seized the power and was named Eparch of the City. The Patriarch, backed by Apokaukos' group and the authority of the Empress, dismissed Kantakouzenos from his offices and declared him a public enemy. Additionally, Kantakouzenos' relatives and supporters were imprisoned or forced to flee the city, as their properties were confiscated.

The previous situation prompted Kantakouzenos to retaliate, leading to a civil war in Byzantium that lasted for six years (1341–1347). During these years of unrest, the Byzantine Empire became so weak that neighbouring powers started taking advantage and expanding at the crumbling empire's expense. Among those were the Serbs, lead by Tsar Stefan Dušan. They invaded the Byzantine lands in 750 AH / 1349 CE, capturing Thessaloniki and some other Greek cities. Furthermore, Byzantine commercial supremacy in the seas surrounding the Empire became a bone of contention for the Italian maritime commercial city-states. The Republic of Genoa possessed Galata, a separate Genoese city across the Golden Horn from Constantinople itself. Once the Civil war ended in 1347 CE and Kantakouzenos ascended to the throne once again, the Byzantines found themselves fighting a war with the Genoese. This was due to the Emperor's decision to decrease customs tariffs in order to attract trade to the Byzantine side of the Golden Horn. The war between the two sides lasted about a year, ending with the Genoese ceding some of the lands surrounding Galata, and the Byzantines keeping the previous tax tariffs.

The second crossing to Rumelia and the conquest of Gallipoli

 A satellite image of the Gallipoli peninsula.

NASA/PD-WorldWind

Emperor John Kantakouzenos had previously sought the help of Emir Umur Bey of Aydın during the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347. The latter, being a loyal ally and friend to the Emperor, provided him with material aid during his military campaigns. Apparently, Umur Bey sent 380 ships and 28,000 men to aid Kantakouzenos in the civil war, he also besieged the city of Demotika in Thrace, before returning back to Anatolia. When the Serbs invaded the empire, Kantakouzenos again asked for Umur Bey's help. Umur Bey replied that he was busy fighting the Smyrniote crusaders - enemies of Byzantium - and therefore he would not be able to come for his friend's aid, and advised him to seek the help of Orhan.

At the same time, Orhan was vigilant about what was happening in the Byzantine courts, and set in his mind a new strategy in dealing with the Romans: policing and supporting them militarily if necessary, without taking any armed action against them. With his political acumen, Orhan realized that the Byzantines would seek help from the Kayı Turks, sooner or later, as they were facing multiple enemies and didn't have enough power to repel them. This was due to political corruption and civil wars that devoured Byzantium and exhausted its resources. Shortly, the empire had no strong ally except the nearby Kayıs. Based on this strategy, Orhan decided that his aid to the Byzantines shall be the beginning of his acquisition of lands in Rumelia as well as the starting of the Muslims’ settlement there. This would eventually launch conquests further into Europe.

Soon afterward, Orhan's expectations became true, as Empress-regent Anna of Savoy, mother of John V, sought the Turkic bey's help asking to send an army against John Kantakouzenos. To prevent the alliance with the Empress-regent from taking place, Kantakouzenos offered Orhan the hand of his daughter, Theodora, he also asked for six thousand Kayı soldiers. On 21 Shawwāl 747 AH / 3 February 1347 CE, the Kayı army entered Constantinople at night at the invitation of the Emperor, who had asked Orhan to attend himself, but the latter did not accept the invitation and sent his son Sulāymān as commander-in-chief instead. Using this military force, John Kantakouzenos was able to seize the cities located on the shores of the Black Sea, with the exception of Sozopol.[96] This second crossing to Rumelia and the entry of the Ottomans into the Balkans is considered one of the most important historical events: starting from this point, the course of European history changed. This second crossing to Rumelia and the entry of the Ottomans into the Balkans is considered one of the most important historical events, as starting from this point, the course of European history changed.

 A title deed attributed to Orhan permitting some Turkmen tribes to settle in Gallipoli.

Orhan Gazi/PD-Ottoman Empire

In 750 AH / 1349 CE, the Byzantine Emperor asked the Kayı's help again after the Serbs, led by Tsar Stefan Dušan, seized Thessaloniki and some other cities as previously mentioned. This success encouraged the Serbs to look towards Constantinople itself, with the aim of establishing a strong Orthodox state on the ruins of the crumbling Byzantine Empire. This was intended to unite all Eastern Orthodox Christians in the face of the Catholic Church. It is commonly agreed that the Byzantine Tekfurs, who ruled over the Balkan provinces, were always at odds with the Slavic peoples there, such as the Serbs and the Bulgars, and were not able to manage their provinces easily. When Orhan met with the emperor in 1347 CE in Üsküdar, they discussed joint measures and the possibility of cooperation against the Slavic danger in the Balkans.

After the Serbian invasion, Emperor John VI asked for Orhan's help, who provided him with twenty thousand soldiers led by his son Sulāymān. By that time, Stefan Dušan had stopped his march towards the Byzantine capital and launched a campaign against the Banate of Bosnia, which allowed the Kayı soldiers and their Byzantine allies to overpower the Serbian troops in Macedonia and Thessaly driving them out after a battle on the shores of the Maritsa river. The Turks, led by Sulāymān, took Thessaloniki and handed it over to the emperor's son Matthew Kantakouzenos, then they returned to Asia Minor.

In 753 AH / 1352 CE, Emperor John Kantakouzenos was again facing an internal conflict launched by his rival, John V Palaiologos, who, aided by the Serbs, attacked and took the city of Adrianople, which was ruled by the emperor's son Matthew Kantakouzenos. This prompted John VI to seek help from his son-in-law Orhan, who sent him a military force of ten thousand horsemen, led by his son . The combined Kayı - Byzantine forces engaged John V's Serbian allies in an open field battle near Demotika. The battle resulted in the destruction of the Serbs and forced Palaiologos to flee to the Venitian island of Tenedos. This was the first major battle of the Ottomans on European soil, the battle also made Stefan Dušan realize the major threat of this young Muslim power to Eastern Europe.

In recognition of Sulāymān Paşa's favour, the emperor gifted him in 1353 CE the small fortress of Çimpe, located on the European bank of the Dardanelles, to make it his base, thus facilitating the Turkic helps to the Byzantines in their European provinces. Sulāymān took advantage of this opportunity and began settling his soldier's families in that region and its surroundings. Once the emperor took notice of the Muslims’ settlement, he offered ten thousand gold coins to Orhan as compensation for the fort and asked for a meeting with the Turkic bey to consult on that. But Orhan refused that bargain, and some historians say that he did not even hear of it.

Sulāymān Paşa's forces camped under the walls of Constantinople for a period, but they were suddenly summoned back to Anatolia due to an unspecified danger, seemingly because of growing tension between the Kayı Turks and the neighbouring Turkmen emirates. During their campaign in Rumelia, the Kayıs seized the city of Ankara from the Karamanids, which prompted the laters to resort to the Eretnids and their Emir Alâeddin Eretna ibn Jaʽfar, who was considered the successor of the Mongol Ilkhans in central Anatolia. The Eretnid intervention seemed to have restored Ankara under the Karamanid sovereignty, however, the Kayıs retained the important fortress of Çimpe and started launching raids from it on the economically important town of Kallipolis, as well as on Thrace.

On 6 Ṣafar 755 AH / 2 March 1354 CE, the Gallipoli peninsula was struck by an earthquake that destroyed hundreds of villages and towns in the area. Nearly every building in Gallipoli was destroyed, and soon after the earthquake, heavy rains poured down causing sweeping streams which made the area uninhabitable, causing the Greek population to evacuate their homes. Within a month, Sulāymān Paşa seized the site, quickly fortifying it and populating it with Muslim families brought over from Anatolia.

Within a few months, Gallipoli's houses were repaired and made livable, its walls were re-erected, and turned into a Muslim city. Having noticed a change in the area's demography, the Byzantine Emperor asked Sulāymān Paşa to withdraw his soldiers from the peninsula, but Sulāymān replied that he and his people came to the region and did not expel anyone by force and that he won't give up this gift from God. The emperor tried tempting the Turks out of the city, offering to pay them compensations as well as the evacuation expenses, but Sulāymān Paşa refused. The Emperor then complained to his son-in-law Orhan bey, and it was decided that the two men meet at İzmit to discuss the situation in Gallipoli, but Orhan wasn't able to attend due to an illness. The Emperor thus considered this a great defeat and fell into despair.

By that time, the struggle for power in Constantinople was resolved, as the Byzantine people held John VI responsible for the lands the empire lost to the Muslims in the Balkans, which prompted him to abdicate and retire to a monastery on 1 Dhu al-Ḥijjah 756 AH / 4 December 1355 CE in favour of John V. These events allowed the Kayıs to interfere in Byzantine affairs, as Sulāymān Paşa supported John V against his rival John Kantakouzenos. This new alliance was cemented by the betrothment of Şehzade Halil, son of Orhan, to princess Irene Palaiologina, daughter of John V.

Orhan's final years and death

 Orhan's grave (left) inside his türbe in Bursa.

Dosseman/cc-by-sa-4.0

 Orhan as an old man.

Unknown/PD-anon-70-EU

Orhan was the longest living and one of the longest-reigning of the Ottoman Sultans. In his last years, Orhan had authorized his second son Murad to practice most of the powers of the state, while he would withdraw to live a secluded life in Bursa. In 1356, Orhan and Theodora's son, Şehzade Halil, was abducted somewhere in the Gulf of İzmit. A Genoese commercial boat captain, conducting acts of piracy alongside commercial activity, captured the young Şehzade and took Halil to Phocaea on the Aegean Sea, which was under Genoese rule. Orhan was very much upset by this kidnapping and conducted talks with his brother-in-law and now sole Byzantine Emperor John V Palaeologus. The latter sent a Byzantine naval fleet to Phocaea and paid the demanded ransom (100,000 hyperpyra) bringing Halil back to the Kayı territory.

About a year after that (760 AH / 1357 CE), Orhan had a tragedy, as his eldest, most experienced son and likely heir Sulāymān Paşa sustained injuries after falling from his horse near Bolayır on the coast of the Sea of Marmara, during a hunting trip, and he soon died at 41 years old. Sulāymān's death was the reason for stopping the Islamic advance in Europe for a while, since Sulāymān was the ablest, among Orhan's sons, to continue his father's conquests. Orhan was said to have been greatly affected by the death of his son, to the degree that he fell into deep illness. Soon after that, in the month of Jumādā al-ʾŪlā 761 AH / March 1360 CE, Orhan died at the age of 81 years, after a reign of 35 years, and was buried in a türbe along with his son Sulāymān.

Renovations and Administrative Arrangements

State Affairs

 Kayı beylik on the eve of Orhan's death.

DragonTiger23/self-cc-by-sa-3.0

Thanks to the new laws and regulations Orhan enacted, the Kayı beylik was transformed into a true state. During his era, the position of Sadrazam (Grand vizier) was created for the first time, as mentioned earlier. Orhan was also the first to appoint separate Qadis (magistrates) and Subaşıs (chiefs of police) to the different Sanjaks. He also established a Dīwān to look into matters of governance, and the Awqāfsystem. On the eve of Orhan's death, the Kayı beylik's area reached 95,000 km², growing 6 times in size compared to when Orhan first ascended the throne. This area included the entire modern Turkish provinces of Bilecik, Bursa, Balıkesir (along with the Marmara Islands), Sakarya, Kocaeli, Çanakkale, Eskişehir, Tekirdağ except the district of Saray, along with the Asian part of İstanbul except for a few villages in islands adjacent to the city; and the districts of Keşan and İpsala in Edirne, Lüleburgaz in Kırklareli; Soma and Kırkağaç in Manisa, Domaniç in Kütahya; Bergama, Dikili, and Kınık in İzmir, as well as Nallıhan, Beypazarı, Ayaş, Kızılcahamam, Haymana, and Polatlı in Ankara. In general, Orhan left a new country not to be underestimated. For example, the beylik population at that time was greater than the population of the Kingdom of England, estimated to be more than 3 million in 1362 CE, while England's population is estimated to be 2.56 million at around the same time.

Military Affairs

The number of Kayı soldiers during Orhan's reign is estimated to have reached around 90,000 men in 1332 CE: 40,000 cavalries and 50,000 infantry. Also, once the Karasid Beylik was annexed, its 25,000 soldiers joined the Kayı armies. Some estimate that the total number of Orhan's soldiers reached around 115,000 at the end of his reign, compared to 75,000 of the Karamanid beylik, making the Kayı army the strongest among the Anatolian Turkmen emirates by that time. Additionally, when Orhan annexed the Karasid Beylik, their small fleet was possessed by the Kayıs, and its captainship was handed to Sulāymān Paşa. The latter ordered these ships to be docked at Aydıncıḳ, making it the first Ottoman naval base. With this fleet, Sulāymān Paşa crossed the strait of Çanakkale and conquered Gallipoli.

Orhan commanded that the Kayı soldier are to be distinguished by wearing a red, yellow, and black coif. Then, he ordered the black be replaced with white. The headgear remained the same until the time of Sultan Bayezid I. As the army increased in numbers, Orhan ordered his own regiment and Mamluks to be dressed in white garments, while the notables made their followers wear a red coif. These practices remained the same till the time of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror.

Commerce and Economics

Orhan issued a trade Law in Bursa after the law of his father, Osman, which was issued in Eskişehir around the year 699 AH / 1300 CE. Orhan's law is one of the oldest Ottoman laws consisting of 21 articles. In addition to the articles defining the taxes imposed on craftsmen and shop owners, for the first time in Ottoman history, several rules were established to determine production and employment standards for Ḥammām workers, plumbers, and refreshments sellers.

Interfaith dialogue

 Icon of Archbishop and later Saint Gregory Palamas.

Unknown/PD-Old

When the Kayı Turks conquered Gallipoli, they took into their custody the Archbishop of Thessaloniki, Gregory Palamas, who was one of the most brilliant Byzantine theologians and a leader of the hesychast spirituality movement. The Greek Orthodox Church had adopted the Hesychast as an official doctrine during the reign of John VI Kantakouzenos, who was supported by Palamas himself.

Palamas was sailing from the island of Tenedos to Constantinople when he was captured by the Kayı sailors, who took him to Bithynia. When Orhan realized the distinct identity of his prisoner, he demanded a huge ransom for his release and treated him with high honour, and allowing Palamas to meet a number of Bithynian Christians to brief them on the developments taking place in Byzantium and the Orthodox Church. Orhan's family showed great interest in the presence of Palamas on their lands because of his close relations with the royal circles around Kantakouzenos. During a feast invited by Orhan's grandson Ismā'īl, Archbishop Palamas was able to raise in an extensive discussion the questions of fasting in Christianity and abstinence from eating meat, the Christian belief in Jesus's crucifixion and the Virgin Mary.

Orhan soon heard about Palamas's rhetoric and initiated a public symposium for dialogue between Christians and Muslims in Nicaea, where he invited several Jews who had converted to Islam to represent the Islamic side in this meeting. The discussion took place in Greek, as it was the mother tongue of the Byzantines and Jews who had recently converted to Islam, and a number of translators attended the symposium to help the Turkic Muslims understand the facts of the debate. This symposium was distinguished by its liveliness, and it dealt with several fundamental issues, including Moses and the prophets, the resurrection and ascension of Christ, the reluctance of Christians to recognize the message of the Prophet Muḥammad, and circumcision. In that seminar, the Muslims seemed to be delighted at what they had heard and learned, and they greeted Palamas with great respect before the discussions were concluded. On the other hand, one of the Jews who had converted to Islam insulted and beat the Archbishop, but he was immediately arrested and brought before Orhan.

A few days later, Pallas proceeded to an informal public religious discussion with an astute Muslim scholar whom he watched lead a funeral prayer. The debate took place between the two parties on a major issue represented in the eradication of the name of the Prophet Muḥammad from the Bible, and a group of Muslims and Christians gathered around the two men to follow up on the details of the dialogue. Pallas seemed a little extremist in his views, which provoked some Muslims in the audience, and once Pallas noticed that he added, with a smile, that if everyone agreed on all other issues, then they would share a single faith. Then, a Muslim rushed in, saying with a tone of optimism that, one day, there might be such an agreement. Soon, the crowd dispersed in peace.

Strengthening the relationship between the state and the Bektaşi Order

During Orhan's reign, the relationship was strengthened between the Kayı political leadership and the Bektaşi sheikhs, especially the Rûmi Abdāls, led by the Majdhūb Musa Abdāl. The aforementioned sheikh was one of the most prominent Bektaşi spiritual leaders, considered by the members of this order as a Walī. He was present at Orhan's side when the latter conquered Bursa and contributed to defending the Kayı beylik's lands against aggressions, offering his Murīds as warriors to support Orhan's army in battles, thus helping in annexing many parts of western Anatolia to the emerging Ottoman state.

It is broadly accepted that Musa Abdāl compiled the literature of the Bektaşi Order, and he held high admiration for Ḥājī Baktāš Walī considering him to be a Pir or a “master of knowledge”, although he never met him in person. This admiration made Musa Abdāl follow Ḥājī Baktāš's doctrine and imitate it, and his Murīds followed him in turn, spreading abundantly in all parts of Anatolia, especially in the western half. People were greatly influenced by the teachings of these Murīds. Thus, the idea of venerating Ḥājī Baktāš became spread in large areas within the scope of the Kayı beylik.

Among the most influential Bektaşi sheikhs during the time of Orhan was also the Majdhūb Doglu Bābā, who was also present during the conquest of Bursa, where he served milk mixed with water to the thirsty tired warriors. Another sheikh, Majdhūb Murd Abdāl, was also present. Orhan built a Takīyah for the latter sheikh and his Murīds in Bursa, he endowed a village as well to cover its expenses. According to the later Ottoman explorer Evliya Çelebi, the aforementioned Takīyah was still being used by the Bektaşi Order during the 17^th century. Âşıkpaşazâde mentions in his book Tevārīḫ-i Āl-i ʿOsmān (Arabic & Ottoman Turkish: تواريخ آل عُثمان = History of the house of Osman), that once Orhan settled in Bursa and made it his capital, he immediately sought out Dervishes to move to the city, so they can practice Da‘wah among the Byzantine inhabitants, and incorporate Bursa into the Islamic culture. To achieve that, he sent letters to various parts of Anatolia asking its Dervishes to come to him. Many answered the bey's call and settled in the new capital, except for one, known as Geyikli Bābā, meaning “Deer master”, who was considered to be among the most blessed holy men. According to this narrative, Orhan insisted that this Dervish come to him, offering to make him a feudal lord over İnegöl. Eventually, Geyikli Bābā did move to Bursa, refusing to be given any titles or possessions, only asking for a zāwiyah where he can live and preach. Orhan admired this Dervish's temperance, he also answered his request, building him a zāwiyah and a mosque in a location of his choosing. With the settlement of his Murīds around the zāwiyah, a settlement known today as Babasultan was established.

Both Âşıkpaşazâde and Evliya Çelebi add that after this event took place, the Ottoman sultans patronized the Bektaşi Order, strengthening the relationship between the two sides. The Bektaşis were entrusted with the task of giving moral education to the Janissaries, which made that military sect closely connected to the order to the point that they became known as the “Bektaşi Ocak” (Bektaşi unites). Centuries later, when the Janissary sect was abolished, the Bektaşi Order was abolished along with it and all the privileges enjoyed by its sheikhs were removed.

Orhan's Character and Attributes

 Orhan's Tuğra.

Orhan Gazi/PD-old

 Orhan (left) sitting with Alâeddin Ali Esved.

Mkadioglu2020/PD-Art-PD-old-100

According to some sources, Orhan bey was described as handsome, majestic and strong. He had a pinkish-white face, knotted eyebrows, rounded beard, tall and broad shoulders, a nose “similar in shape to a battering ram”, and wide eyes. Greek historian Laonikos Chalkokondyles described Orhan as being: “very tactful, and especially generous to warriors, artists, and the poor”. Ottoman historian Mehmed Neşrî states that Orhan loved the company of scholars and the Ḥuffāẓ, and allocated salaries to them called “Ulfa”.

It is agreed upon that Orhan enjoyed lighting the lamps of the mosques he ordered to be built. He also participated in distributing the food that he ordered to be cooked. Turkish historian Salih Gülen says: “Orhan Gazi built two mosque complexes in Bursa and İznik to provide various charitable services to the community, sometimes he himself served soup to the poor in a kitchen built inside these two complexes to feed the needy. Orhan Gazi was a pious ruler and a very brave leader to the degree that he used to fight with his army on the first ranks. He carried out his father's commandment by always being among the people and for the sake of the people”.

According to Yaḥyā Bustânzâde in “Tarih Al-Ṣafi”, Orhan used to fast on Mondays and Thursdays, and to wearing a woollen hat, wrapping it in a white Turban in honor of Mullah Jalāl Al-Dīn Al-Rūmī.

Legacy

Turkish scholar Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar says that Orhan was a model for all Ottoman sultans for a century and a half. Later Ottoman scholar and historian Idris Bitlisi mentions in his major literary work Hasht Behesht (Persian: هشت‌بهشت = Eight Heavens) that Orhan Gazi is the real founder of the Ottoman Empire. While acclaimed historian Halil İnalcık believes that Orhan was the first Ottoman ruler to be given the title of “Sultan”. Abdulraḥman Şeref bey, one of the last Ottoman historians, considers Orhan to be an intrepid man that laid strong foundations for the state that his father had begun to build and succeeded in transferring his nomadic Anatolian clan to a state that ruled in Europe and Asia thanks to his fair administration.

Additional information

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to Dr. Michel Bakni, for his guidance, notes and help during writing this article and after it was finished.

Competing interests

The author declares no relevant conflicts of interest.

Funding

None