The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 03
3. The Prophet of Yathrib and the New Polity (622-630)
editThe center of the new religion shifts to the oasis of Yathrib, with warfare taking center stage. Muḥammad and his followers engage in battles against pagan Mecca and increasingly come into conflict with the Jews of Yathrib, who are ultimately expelled from the oasis. As the leader of the nascent community, Muḥammad implements a series of legal, social, and ritual reforms.
3.1. Maghāzī – The Military Expeditions of Muḥammad
edit3.1.1. The Provocation of the Quraysh
editArab sources consistently report that Muḥammad arrived at the oasis of Yathrib on September 24, 622, following his emigration from Mecca. Having been expelled from his hometown, he considered it justifiable to engage in conflict against his former hometown. This is clearly reflected in two Qur'anic verses, widely recognized as the earliest revelations on the subject of warfare:
“ | Sanction is given unto those who fight because they have been wronged; and Allah is indeed able to give them victory; Those who have been driven from their homes unjustly only because they said: Our Lord is Allah. | ” |
The war with Mecca, which Muḥammad waged from his new base in Yathrib, began with minor pinpricks. According to the chronology of al-Wāqidī, who composed a detailed account of Muḥammad's military expeditions (maghāzī) in the early 9th century, Muḥammad dispatched his uncle Ḥamza with a group of warriors seven months after his arrival in Yathrib to intercept a Meccan trade caravan returning from Syria under the leadership of Abū Jahl. However, no combat occurred because a man from the Juhaynah tribe, allied with both sides, intervened. During a second expedition in April 623, "the first arrow of Islam" was launched. The conflict with the Meccans soon disregarded traditional Arab religious norms, such as the obligation to maintain peace during the sacred months (see above 1.3.3.). For example, a unit commissioned by Muḥammad raided a Meccan caravan during the sacred month of Rajab near Nakhla, south of Mecca. According to tradition, this event prompted the following revelation:
“ | They question [you] (O Muhammad) with regard to warfare in the sacred month. Say: Warfare therein is a great (transgression), but to turn (men) from the way of Allah, and to disbelieve in Him and in the Inviolable Place of Worship, and to expel His people thence, is a greater with Allah; for persecution is worse than killing. And they will not cease from fighting against you till they have made you renegades from your religion, if they can. | ” |
From this Qur'anic verse, it is evident that the continued existence of the old religion in Mecca posed a constant temptation for Muḥammad’s followers to abandon their faith. Since many of them apparently found military combat (qitāl) undesirable, Muḥammad now declared it a duty (cf. Q 2:216) and elevated it to a religious level by designating it as jihād fī sabīl Allāh (“striving in the way of God”, as stated in the subsequent verse Q 2:218). This term has also been adopted into the English language in the form of Jihad.
The first major confrontation between the Meccans and Muḥammad’s followers took place in March 624 near the site of Badr, approximately 130 kilometers southwest of Yathrib. Muḥammad had received information about a wealthy Meccan caravan returning from Syria. With 300 men, including members of the Muzaynah tribe allied with the Aws, he set out for Badr, situated along the coastal road, to intercept the caravan. A battle ensued between Muḥammad's forces and a Meccan army of approximately 950 men, which had rushed to the caravan's aid under the command of Muḥammad’s bitter adversary Abū Jahl. Muḥammad's forces achieved an unexpected victory. The Meccans suffered between 45 and 70 fatalities, with a similar number taken prisoner. Among the fallen Meccans were several prominent figures, including Abū Jahl. In contrast, Muḥammad’s followers lost only 14 men and captured substantial spoils of war.
Following the battle, Muḥammad had some of the prisoners beheaded, including his former adversary al-Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith. The victory at Badr was of immense military and religious significance for Muḥammad's followers. Apparently, however, not all of them contributed to this victory. This is evident from verses revealed after Badr, which clarify that those among the believers who “sit still” at home without a valid excuse are not equal in rank before God to the Mujāhidūn – those who engage in jihad (strive in the way of Allah) with their wealth and their lives (cf. Q 4:95f).
3.1.2. The Defense Against the Meccan Counterattack
editThe defeat at Badr dealt a severe blow to the Quraysh of Mecca. They had long been regarded as one of the most powerful tribes in Arabia, and to some extent, their commercial success relied on this reputation. Their trade depended on cooperation with many other tribes, and now, insubordination from some of these tribes was to be anticipated. It was therefore of critical importance for the Quraysh to demonstrate that they still possessed the strength to exact revenge for the wrongs they had suffered. Ten weeks after the Battle of Badr, Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb, who had assumed leadership of Mecca following the battle, carried out a swift raid on Yathrib. After setting fire to two houses, however, he quickly withdrew.
In the months that followed, Abū Sufyān succeeded in recruiting 3,000 well-equipped warriors. In March 625, he advanced toward Yathrib with this force, penetrating the oasis from its northwestern corner. At Mount Uhud, a battle ensued, with the momentum shifting back and forth between the two sides for a long time. As the tide of war began to shift in favor of Muḥammad’s followers, they started gathering the spoils. This prompted a group of Muḥammad’s archers to abandon their positions to turn their attention to the spoils. On the Meccan side, Khālid ibn al-Walīd, a prominent warrior, exploited the situation to sow confusion among the ranks of Muḥammad's followers and ultimately overpower them. However, in the end, Muḥammad’s followers succeeded in regaining critical positions, causing the Meccans to withdraw without permanently eliminating their adversary, Muḥammad. For Muḥammad’s followers, the Battle of Uhud was nevertheless a bitter disappointment: not only because they had lost 50 to 70 men, including Muḥammad’s uncle Ḥamza, and Muḥammad himself had been injured, but also because they came to realize that divine support was not as assured as it had seemed after their victory at Badr. Several Qur’anic verses from this period affirm that those who are killed “in the way of God” are not truly dead but living (Q 2:154), are provided for by their Lord (Q 3:169), have their sins forgiven (Q 3:157), and are admitted directly into Paradise (Q 3:195).
The conflict between Muḥammad and the Meccans was by no means concluded with the Battle of Uhud. As Muḥammad continued to disrupt Meccan trade and found an increasing number of allies among the Arabian Bedouins, the Meccans felt compelled to take action against him once more. In turn, they sought to recruit a number of Bedouin tribes to their side. These alliances demonstrate that the conflict between Mecca and Yathrib had by then extended to the surrounding regions of both cities. In July 625, the Banū Sulaym, a tribe allied with the Quraysh, massacred a large number of Muslims at Biʾr Maʿūna, located between Mecca and Yathrib. In response, Muḥammad is said to have cursed the Banū Sulaym for an entire month. This practice has been preserved in a modified form as part of the Qunūt, a supplication recited during the morning prayer or the nightly Witr prayer.
At the beginning of 627, the Meccans and their allies advanced to Yathrib with a force of 10,000 men. Muḥammad, however, had a trench (khandaq) excavated around the less fortified areas of the oasis settlement, making it wide enough that a horse could not leap across. This move took the Meccans by such surprise that they were unable to devise an effective strategic response. What had been intended as an assault instead turned into a siege. Due to intrigues, however, the Meccan alliance collapsed after only 14 days, forcing an end to the siege of Yathrib. The Meccans ultimately withdrew without having achieved anything.
3.1.3. The Military and Political Breakthrough
editThe Battle of the Trench was, essentially, Muḥammad’s final defensive campaign. From that point onward, his life entered an offensive phase, marking the beginning of an era of conquests for the community he had established. To understand Muḥammad's subsequent military success, it is necessary to contextualize the political dynamics of the Middle East during that period. At the beginning of the 7th century, a prolonged conflict erupted between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire. Between 603 and 619, Sasanian forces initially conquered Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. In 622, however, the Byzantine emperor launched a counteroffensive. The conflict led to intense clashes in which the Sasanians suffered several defeats. It concluded in 628 with a peace treaty requiring Khosrow II to return all conquered territories. Subsequently, Khosrow was overthrown by his officers, initiating a period of political turmoil in the Sasanian Empire that persisted until 633. During this time, the Sasanian alliance network on the Arabian Peninsula collapsed. It was precisely during this five-year power vacuum that Muḥammad transformed his newly established state into a military and political success.
In the year following the Battle of the Trench, he led several smaller military expeditions, the most significant being those against the oasis of Dumat al-Jandal and the Muṣṭaliq tribe, situated west of Yathrib. In March 628, accompanied by a group of believers, he set out for Mecca to perform the ʿUmrah pilgrimage. The Meccans, suspecting hostile intentions, ensured that he did not approach the city. From his encampment at al-Ḥudaybiya, on the outskirts of the Ḥaram, Muḥammad initiated negotiations with the Meccans, resulting in a treaty. The treaty imposed what appeared on the surface to be humiliations, which in turn created tensions among his followers. For instance, the Meccan envoy refused to recognize him as “Muḥammad, the Messenger of God,” acknowledging him only as “Muḥammad ibn ʿAbdallāh.” However, the terms of the agreement were of greater significance: they included a ten-year truce and a promise from the Meccans to allow Muḥammad and his followers to enter the city the following year for a three-day ʿUmrah. In return, Muḥammad refrained from performing the ʿUmrah that year and withdrew with his men to Yathrib.
The Treaty of Ḥudaybiya was a triumph for the Prophet and his followers. The Qur'an reports that God sent down His sakīna into the hearts of the believers, increasing their faith (Q 48:4, 18). The term sakīna originates from the Jewish concept of Shekhinah, which denotes the “presence” of God among His people. In this context, however, it also refers to a psychological state of tranquility and serenity. Following the Treaty of Ḥudaybiya, several Arabs from other regions of Arabia who had already pledged allegiance to Muḥammad previously completed their Hijrah—that is, they migrated to Yathrib—to provide military support to Muḥammad. Among them were, for example, the two Yemenis, Abū Hurayra and Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī. The following year, in March 629, Muḥammad traveled to Mecca with approximately 2,000 followers to perform the planned ʿUmrah. On this occasion, he married Maymūnah, the sister-in-law of his uncle ʿAbbās, who at that time had assumed the leadership of the Banū Hāshim in Mecca. An increasing number of Meccans began to acknowledge Muḥammad as a prophet and left the city to join him, including those who had fought against him only a short time earlier, such as Khālid ibn al-Walīd, who had been on the opposing side during the Battle of Uhud (see above 3.1.2.). The Qur'an specifies a distinct procedure for women who sought to join the Muslim camp: They were to be examined, and if recognized as true believers, they were not to be sent back to the disbelievers; the Muslim community was required to reimburse the disbelievers for their dowries, after which it was permissible to marry these women (Q 60:10).
In the course of 629, Muḥammad oversaw additional military campaigns. In September, he dispatched his former slave and adopted son, Zayd ibn Ḥāritha, with an army to Muʿtah, in present-day Jordan, east of the southern tip of the Dead Sea. A series of events then unfolded, ultimately leading to the peaceful capitulation of Mecca. Muḥammad married Umm Ḥabība, the daughter of Abū Sufyān, who had embraced Islam years earlier and whose Muslim husband had passed away. Shortly thereafter, a clan of the Khuzāʿah tribe, which had allied with Muḥammad after Ḥudaybiya, was attacked by a clan of the Kināna tribe, who were allied with the Meccans. Under duress, the Khuzāʿah clan appealed to Muḥammad, who regarded the Treaty of Ḥudaybiya as breached due to this incident.
To avoid a military confrontation, Abū Sufyān traveled to Yathrib under the pretext of visiting his daughter and conducted negotiations with Muḥammad. Although the exact course of the subsequent events remains unclear, it is certain that gifts were exchanged between Muḥammad and Abū Sufyān following the latter's return to Mecca. In the matter itself, however, Muḥammad was unwilling to make any concessions and gave the command to prepare for a campaign to capture Mecca. With an army of approximately 10,000 men, comprising not only his followers from Mecca and Yathrib but also fighters from neighboring tribes such as the Banū Sulaym and Muzayna, he marched toward Mecca. Abū Sufyān met him on the way and engaged in negotiations. In return for his conversion to Islam, he was granted a guarantee of safety for all Meccan residents who refrained from armed resistance. These extensive assurances resulted in Muḥammad's army facing only minimal resistance as they advanced into the city from multiple directions in January 630. In Arabic sources, the conquest of Mecca is referred to as fatḥ, “opening”, serving as an archetype for subsequent Muslim conquests (futūḥ) of cities and lands under Muḥammad's successors. Separate texts and works were later dedicated to documenting these events.
3.2. The Internal Development of the Community in Yathrib
edit3.2.1. The So-Called “Constitution of Medina”
editUpon Muḥammad's arrival in Yathrib, his followers primarily consisted of two main groups: the members of the Quraysh who had undertaken the Hijrah with him from Mecca, and the clans of Aws and Khazraj, who had received these emigrants in Yathrib. Establishing a bond of loyalty between these two groups was an urgent necessity to establish a cohesive community. This very issue is addressed in a verse of the Qur'an, which states: “Those who believed and left their homes and strove with their wealth and their lives for the cause of Allah, and those who took them in and helped them: these are protecting friends one of another.” (Q 8:72). Evidently, practical measures were undertaken to achieve this objective, as there are reports suggesting the establishment of a “brotherhood” (muʾākhāh) between members of the two groups. The typical form of this bond of brotherhood involved pairing an emigrant (muhājir) with one of the “helpers” (anṣār), with both declaring themselves as brothers. If one of them fell in battle, the other would inherit from him. The primary purpose of this brotherhood was to achieve greater solidarity in warfare. However, this measure did not entirely overcome the division among Muḥammad's followers. Over time, the distinction between the Meccan “Emigrants” (muhājirūn) and the “Helpers” (anṣār) from Yathrib seems to have become further entrenched, as suggested by two later Qur'anic verses (Q 9:100, 117), in which the two groups are juxtaposed.
A historical document offers a much more detailed account of the political circumstances in Yathrib following Muḥammad’s arrival than the Qur’an: the so-called Constitution of Medina. This document, transmitted by Ibn Hishām, contains the earliest recorded instance of the Arabic term al-Madīna (“the city” or “the place of jurisdiction”) as a designation for Yathrib. The term later became widely used as the city’s name and also appears in the final chapters of the Qur’an (e.g., Q 9:102; 63:8). Regarding the political order, the document begins by establishing itself as “a compact from Muḥammad the Prophet between the Believers and Muslims of Quraysh and Yathrib, and those who follow them, join them, and fight alongside them” (§ 1). They are to form “one Ummah, distinct from all others” (§ 2). The term Ummah is referenced in many other sections of the Qur'an, to denote various communities led by prophets. However, the Ummah of Medina was more oriented toward tribal concepts. The nine primary signatories of the pact were the "Emigrants of the Quraysh," who were evidently considered a single clan, along with eight clans from Yathrib. As stated, each group was to preserve its tribal structure and bear responsibility for paying blood money and ransoms on behalf of its members. However, this obligation of solidarity was restricted to the believers (muʾminūn) within each group. The second part of the document focuses on relations with the Jewish tribes of Yathrib and their Bedouin allies. The document concludes by declaring that the Valley of Yathrib is sacred (ḥarām) for all treaty partners (§ 39). The document demonstrates that the concept of Ummah at that time was understood to encompass relationships with members of other religions. Essentially, it was a treaty of alliance consistent with traditional Arab legal concepts. However, by restricting the obligations of solidarity in the first section to “believers,” a religious dimension was introduced. Muḥammad himself was assigned a judicial role within the framework of the Constitution. Thus, it was stipulated that those engaged in a dispute over a matter should bring it before God and Muḥammad (§§ 23, 42).
3.2.2 The Conflict with the Jews
editBy the end of the Meccan period, Muḥammad maintained a highly positive view of Judaism. Qur'anic texts from this period call for avoiding disputes with the “People of the Book” (Ahl al-Kitāb), referring to the Jews of Yathrib, and instead emphasize highlighting the shared elements between the two revealed religions (Q 29:46). During the early Medinan period, the positive relationship with the Jewish community led Muḥammad and his followers to further align themselves with Jewish provisions. For instance, a third daily prayer was introduced following the Jewish model (cf. Q 2:238f), and the consumption of pork as well as sexual relations during menstruation were prohibited (cf. Q 2:173, 222).
During the early Medinan period, Muḥammad was also referred to as a nabī , a title used for prophets in the Bible and Jewish tradition. This title may have been introduced to persuade the Jews of Yathrib to acknowledge Muḥammad's religious leadership. Particularly noteworthy is the adjective ummī , which accompanies the term nabī in its first Qur'anic occurrence (Q 7:157f). It is likely derived from the Hebrew expression ummot ha-ʿolam, used in the Talmud to refer to non-Jewish nations where righteous individuals may emerge. The reference to this pagan-friendly tradition was significant, the prevailing belief among the Jews of Yathrib held that no prophecy could arise among the Arabs.
However, this rapprochement with Judaism did not imply that Muḥammad sought to subsume his religion into it. The Constitution of Medina explicitly states, “The Jews have their religion and the Believers have theirs.” He identified a shared religious foundation in monotheism, as reflected in the following Qur'anic verse:
“ | Say: O People of the Scripture! Come to an agreement between us and you: that we shall worship none but Allah, and that we shall ascribe no partner unto Him, and that none of us shall take others for lords beside Allah. | ” |
Muḥammad seemingly envisioned that the Jews would eventually recognize his message as a reaffirmation of their own religion. This ultimately led him to expect that they would acknowledge his religious authority. Several Qur'anic verses call upon the Israelites to believe in what was revealed to him as a confirmation of their own scripture (Q 2:41) and to regard him as a confirmer of the Torah (Q 3:50).
It was likely in the context of the conflict with the Jews of Medina that Muḥammad first referred to the Archangel Gabriel as the mediator of the Qur'anic revelation. Gabriel had already played a prominent role in Jewish traditions concerning Abraham and Moses in pre-Islamic times. According to Surah 2:97, Gabriel is the one who has revealed the Qur’an to Muḥammad's heart “by God’s [permission], confirming that which was (revealed) before it, and a guidance and glad tidings to believers.” Qur'anic commentators explain that these verses were revealed when the Jews of Medina inquired of Muḥammad about the angel who brought him the revelations. When he responded that it was Gabriel—regarded as the friend of all prophets—they reportedly replied that they could not acknowledge him, as their friend was the angel Michael, while Gabriel was their enemy. In Surah 2:97-98, this “enmity” is condemned, emphasizing that both angels, Gabriel and Michael, are servants of God.
Such Qur'anic passages clearly demonstrate that the Jews of Medina were unwilling to recognize Muḥammad as a prophet within their tradition. Other verses reference recurring disputes with them (e.g., Q 2:139). Historiographical sources report that, at that time in Medina, there was only one prominent Jew who converted to Islam: ʿAbdallāh ibn Salām. His conversion is surrounded by numerous legends in Islamic tradition. Disappointed by the lack of support from Medina's Jewish community, Muḥammad severed ties with Judaism following the Battle of Badr. He urged the Jews to no longer call on him as an arbitrator, as they did not even abide by the rules of their own Torah (Q 5:43-45). Verbal attacks against the Jews became increasingly frequent. In various passages, they are accused of obduracy (e.g. Q 2:87-90) and their strict dietary prohibitions are explained as a consequence of their grave sins from the past (Q 4:160). In other passages, they are accused of concealing parts of their scriptures (cf. Q 11:18). Finally, there are four passages that state the Jews deliberately “distorted” or “corrupted” their scripture (Q 2:75-79, 4:46, 5:13, 5:41).
Verbal attacks were soon followed by physical attacks on Yathrib's Jewish tribes, which did not constitute a unified community but were part of three different tribes: the Banū Qaynuqāʿ, Banū al-Naḍīr, and Banū Qurayẓa. The Banū Qaynuqāʿ, who maintained their own market in Yathrib, were the victims of the first attack. According to tradition, the cause is said to have been an incident that occurred on their market following the Battle of Badr in 624, where an Arab woman was harassed by a group of Jews. A Muslim who witnessed the incident killed one of the Jews and was subsequently killed himself. This event served as the catalyst for Muḥammad to lay siege to the Banū Qaynuqāʿ in their fortified quarter in April 624. They were forced to leave their possessions behind and migrate to Adhriʿāt (modern-day Darʿā in Ḥaurān, Syria). The expulsion of the Banū Qaynuqāʿ also had an economic dimension, as Muḥammad was seeking to establish his own marketplace at the time, and the Qaynuqāʿ's market was an obstacle to this effort.
In August 625, Muḥammad took action against the Jewish tribe of Banū al-Naḍīr. According to tradition, the conflict was triggered by an attempted assassination of Muḥammad and accusations of collaboration with the hostile Quraysh. Muḥammad besieged them in their fortified houses and ordered the destruction of their palm plantations, thereby breaking an unwritten law of Arab warfare. According to Islamic tradition, verse Q 59:5 serves as a justification for this action. Like the Banū Qaynuqāʿ, the Banū al-Naḍīr were also expelled, with the majority seeking refuge in the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, where they possessed land and fortresses.
Following the Battle of the Trench in 627, a confrontation arose between the Muslims and the Banū Qurayẓa, the third and last remaining Jewish tribe in Medina, who also owned various other oases in the northern part of the peninsula. They were accused of breaching their agreement with Muḥammad and collaborating with the Quraysh during the Battle of the Trench. A siege of their fortified district lasting several weeks ensued. As allies of the Banū Qurayẓa, the Banū Aws interceded on their behalf, leading Muḥammad to leave the decision regarding their fate to Saʿd ibn Muʿādh, a member of the Banū Aws who had been gravely injured during the Battle of the Trench and was near death. He decreed that all men be executed, the women and children taken into captivity, and their property divided. This was carried out immediately despite protests from other allies.
Even after this incident, the conflict with the Jews persisted. After their expulsion from Medina, the Banū al-Naḍīr began preparing for war against Muḥammad in Khaybar, in coordination with neighboring Arab tribes. In the spring of 628, Muḥammad launched a preemptive campaign against them. Quran 5:33 prescribes cruel punishments (killing, crucifixion, or the amputation of a hand and a foot on opposite sides) for those who wage war against God and His Messenger, and it is associated with this historical context. Khaybar capitulated in June 628, and its Jewish inhabitants were compelled to surrender their wealth and to surrender half of their annual harvest to the Muslim conquerors. Shortly thereafter, two other Jewish-inhabited oases, Fadak and Taymāʾ, voluntarily submitted to Muḥammad's authority.