The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 01

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1. Fundamentals, Arabia on the Eve of Islam

The first session covers preliminary topics, introduces the lecture's concept, and examines the religious, social, and political landscape of late antique Arabia and its influence on Islam. Special emphasis is placed on the tensions between the various religious cultures that set the stage for the emergence of Ḥanīfism, and subsequently, Islam.

1.1. Preliminaries

1.1.1. Notes on Arabic

1.1.1.1. The Transcription System Used

For enhanced readability, this Introduction primarily uses Wikipedia Strict Transliteration for Arabic names and terms.

The following table provides information on the correlation between Arabic and Latin letters:

Arabic Letter	ا	ب	ت	ث	ج	ح	خ	د	ذ	ر	ز	س	ش	ص	ض	ط	ظ	ع	غ	ف	ق	ك	ل	م	ن	ه	و	ي	يِّ	ء	ة
Name	Alif	Bāʼ	Tāʼ	Thāʼ	Jīm	Ḥāʼ	Khāʼ	Dāl	Dhāl	Rāʼ	Zāy	Sīn	Shīn	Ṣād	Ḍād	Ṭāʼ	Ẓāʾ	‘Ayn	Ghayn	Fā’	Qāf	Kāf	Lām	Mīm	Nūn	Hā’	Wāw	Ya’	Yā’	Hamza	Tā’ marbūṭa
Wikipedia-Strict-Transliteration	a, i, u, ā	b	t	th	j	ḥ	kh	d	dh	r	z	s	sh	ṣ	ḍ	ṭ	ẓ	‘ or ʿ	gh	f	q	k	l	m	n	h	ū, w, u	y	ī, īy, iyy	’ or ʾ	a, ah, at

Information on the pronunciation of individual Arabic letters and corresponding transliteration marks can be found on the relevant linked pages. Vowels with a macron ā/ī/ū are in principle pronounced as long vowels.

1.1.1.2. The Arabic Article

Throughout this lecture, the reader will frequently encounter the Arabic gender-neutral article al-, as in al-bayt (“the house”). Before the so-called sun letters t, th, d, dh, r, z, s, sh, ṣ, ḍ, ṭ, ẓ, l, and n, the “l” of the article is assimilated to the following sound, as in ash-Shams (“the sun”). After a vowel, the a of the article is dropped.

1.1.1.3. The Morphology of Arabic Words

The root of almost all Arabic words consists of three consonants, known as radicals. These radicals are combined with various vowels, prefixes, infixes, and suffixes to form words. Terms sharing the same root consonants are typically semantically related. For example, the root consonants of the Arabic word jihād are j-h-d. One who practices jihād is a mujāhid. This word also derives from the root j-h-d, but has the prefix mu-. The root j-h-d denotes “to strive, to make an effort.” The word jihād also means effort but, in addition, has acquired the specific meaning of “fight against the unbelievers.” Another word derived from the root j-h-d that includes an infix is Ijtihād, which means “independent reasoning.” Understanding these connections helps in recognizing related words.

1.1.2. The Qur'an as a Resource

In this Introduction, the abbreviation "Q" denotes quotations from the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam. The Qur'an is written in Arabic and organized into Surahs, which are further subdivided into verses. When referencing the Qur'an, "Q" is followed by the specific Surah and verse numbers. For instance, Q 2:42 indicates a quote from Surah 2, verse 42.

Qur'anic quotations in this Introduction are typically linked to the digital edition of the Qur'an by Corpus Coranicum, which provides both a transcription and a translation of the quoted verse. By following these links, you can read the relevant passages directly and understand them within their context. The translation featured in the Corpus Coranicum is by Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall.

Among the literary features of the Qur'an is its distinctive poetic style, known in Arabic as Sajʿ. This is a form of rhymed prose. German-speaking readers, who wish to appreciate some of the linguistic aesthetics of the Qur'an despite lacking Arabic language skills, can turn to the partial translation by the Romantic poet Friedrich Rückert (1788-1866). Rückert made a notable effort to capture the poetic charm of the Qur'an in German. Unfortunately, there is no comparable English translation of the Qur'an to date.

1.2. The Concept of the Introduction

1.2.1. The Underlying Concept of Islam

Overview Map of the Muslim World Population

The 10 Countries with the Largest Muslim Populations in 2010
	Country	Estimated Population	% Percentage of World Muslim Population
1	Indonesia	209.120.000	13,1
2	India	176.200.000	11,0
3	Pakistan	167.410.000	10,5
4	Bangladesh	134.430.000	8,4
5	Nigeria	77.300.000	4,8
6	Egypt	76.990.000	4,8
7	Iran	73.570.000	4,6
8	Türkiye	71.330.000	4,5
9	Algeria	34.730.000	2,2
10	Morocco	31.930.000	2,0
	Total	1.053.010.000	65,8

The subject of this lecture is Islam, a religion with approximately 1.6 billion followers. It is crucial to highlight an important point right at the beginning: only a minority of Muslims, about 20 percent, currently live in the so-called MENA region (Western Asia and North Africa). In contrast, more than half of the world's Muslims live in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The remaining Muslims are spread across Sub-Saharan Africa (15 percent), Central Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The demographic distribution of Muslims worldwide is also reflected in the design of this lecture: it does not focus solely on the MENA region but also gives extensive attention to other regions of the Islamic world.

The term “Islam” is derived from the Arabic verb aslama, meaning “to surrender, to submit, to devote.” This verb appears in various passages of the Qur'an. For instance, in (Q 2:112): “whosoever surrendereth [aslama] his purpose to Allah while doing good, his reward is with his Lord” and in (Q 22:34): “your god is One God, therefor surrender unto Him.” Islām is the verbal noun form (or nominalized form) of aslama: the act of submission or devotion. The Qur'an itself uses this term to denote a religion (dīn): “religion with Allah (is) the Surrender [Islam].” (Q 3:19) and “I have chosen for you as religion al-Islam.” (Q 5:3). One who submits or surrenders, meaning practices Islam, is a Muslim. Grammatically speaking, muslim is the present participle of the verb aslama.

The Qur'an itself makes an interesting distinction between the acceptance of Islam (islām) and the acceptance of faith (ʾīmān). For instance, in Q 49:14, the desert Arabs are instructed not to say, “We believe” (We have accepted faith), but rather “We submit” (We have accepted Islam) because “faith ha[s] not yet entered into [their] hearts". Such statements give rise to the notion that someone who has accepted Islam, i.e., a Muslim, does not necessarily have to be a "believer," i.e., a Mu'min. The definition of Islam is thus less narrow than that of faith. The original meaning of Islām, if it does not refer to faith, has not been clearly established. Meïr Bravmann, who examined the use of the word in pre-Islamic literature, argues that in the early Islamic community, which was strongly oriented toward jihād, it denoted a willingness for self-sacrifice in battle.

The fact that Islam rests on “five pillars” is usually the first thing children learn about Islam in school today.

Since the end of the 7th century (see 5.3.5. below), the concept that Islam rests on five pillars has been documented: 1. belief in God and His Messenger; 2. the five daily prayers; 3. fasting during Ramaḍān; 4. paying Zakāt; and 5. the Ḥajj pilgrimage. These aspects will be further discussed throughout the lecture. The concept of the five pillars of Islam was later attributed to the Prophet in the form of the so-called Hadith of Gabriel. It has been incorporated into the most significant collections of Islamic traditions.

From the outset, Islam also had a political dimension, as Muḥammad, the founder of this religion, established his own state in Medina. Muḥammad's political role and his military success set him apart from most other founders of religions. After Muḥammad's death, the state he established was continued by the so-called caliphs. In Islamic international law theory, it is referred to as Dār al-Islām (“House/Abode of Islam”) (see 6.4.1.3. below). The political dimension of Islam was only questioned and attenuated in the course of the 19th century, as reform-minded Muslims encountered the Western legal and value system. In the course of the re-Islamization process of the late 20th century, however, many Muslims returned to the view that Islam should also be embodied as a distinct state. Several contemporary Islamic states see themselves to varying degrees as successors to the state of Medina. The political ideology that strives for the reestablishment of an Islamic state, in continuation of classical teachings, is generally referred to as “Islamism” or “political Islam”. However, on the international level, a single Islamic state has now been replaced by a family of states, namely the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), based in Jeddah.

From the 19th century onwards, European languages used the term “Islam” with a very broad meaning, encompassing the entire spectrum of Muslim peoples, countries, and states, along with their distinct cultures. As a result, the Encyclopaedia of Islam, the foremost reference work in Islamic studies, covers not only the Islamic religion but also the entire civilization of Muslim-majority countries, with a particular emphasis on the Middle East. Similarly, many Islamists also adopt a broad definition of Islam. For instance, in 1939, Ḥasan al-Bannā, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, declared that Islam is “creed and worship, homeland and nationality, religion (dīn) and state (dawla), spirituality and work, Qur'an and sword” (see 12.1.2. below).

The question of what Islam is and what it encompasses is therefore at times interpreted quite differently. In this Introduction, a definition of Islam is adopted that is narrower than that of a civilization, yet not confined solely to the realm of religion. Relevant to our lecture are all currents, movements, organizations, and institutions that describe themselves as “Islamic”, as well as ideas and concepts that have been declared as “Islamic” (explicit Islamicity) by Muslims. Additionally, matters with a recognizable direct or indirect reference to the Qur’an, Muḥammad, or Mecca are addressed (implicit Islamicity). This is justified by the fact that the Qur'an is the central holy text, Muḥammad the key holy figure, and Mecca the principal holy site of Islam. Finally, events, developments, groups, and individuals of paramount importance to the history of Islam's expansion are also taken into account.

1.2.2 The Historical Approach

In principle, there are two different approaches to depicting a religion. The systematic approach examines the various subfields and dimensions of a particular religion sequentially, such as conceptions of God, mythology, sacred texts, concepts of creation, rituals, ethics, legal and social aspects, political ideas, and so forth. This method has the advantage of allowing related phenomena to be viewed in context, which can sometimes provide greater clarity. However, a risk with this approach is that it can quickly lead to an essentialist view of the particular religion in the minds of listeners and readers, as it may be perceived as unchanging and static. An alternative is the historical approach, which takes the historical context into account when describing individual phenomena, thereby counteracting anachronistic ideas. This approach, for example, can demonstrate that phenomena which today appear inseparable from the particular religion only emerged at a certain point in time within particular political and cultural contexts. The same holds true for the various Islamic movements, whose doctrines often become comprehensible only when considered within the context of their historical background. The historical approach generally encourages critical thinking by allowing the understanding of ideas and norms within their historical development, thereby enabling a critical examination of their universal validity. It also highlights how strongly discourses are shaped by the prevailing power structures. For these reasons, I have opted for the historical approach in this Introduction to Islam.

When discussing the developments, events, personalities, and movements of earlier epochs, it may seem that they have no relevance to the present. However, this impression is misleading. On the one hand, the memory of religious-political events from the Islamic past plays an enormously important role in the collective memory of contemporary Muslims. On the other hand, all religiously tinged discussions among Muslims today about society and politics also reference these past events. Therefore, engaging with past developments is essential for understanding current Islamic discourses. The rituals that shape the religious daily life of Muslims today, such as ritual prayer, the Friday prayer, Ramaḍān fasting, and the pilgrimage to Mecca, were also introduced at specific times and have evolved over time. This lecture aims to explore the historical contexts in which these rituals were established and transformed, fostering an understanding of their social and political significance as it concretizes in specific historical situations.

A key concept in my approach is that the history of Islam unfolds through syntheses. To a certain extent, this idea aligns with Hegel’s dialectical philosophy. My thesis is that each epoch in Islamic history gives rise to new antagonisms, which are then reconciled through dialectical sublation. This process advances history to a higher developmental stage, where individual concepts and norms may acquire new functions. The emergence of Islam itself can also be understood as a dialectical sublation of a contradiction, specifically between the indigenous polytheism and the externally penetrating monotheistic religions in late antique Arabia.

1.2.3. Chronological Structure

Not all periods of Islamic history receive equal attention in this lecture. The primary focus is on the formative phase and the more recent history of Islam. The formative phase of Islam, spanning from the early 7th century to the early 10th century, warrants special attention because it was during this period that nearly the entire system of norms, values, and ideas that continue to characterize Islam today, as well as many Islamic movements that persist to this day, were established. The more recent history of Islam is examined in greater detail simply because it has a stronger impact on us due to its closer temporal proximity. However, the intervening periods, from 930 to 1813, with their significant developments in the history of religion, should not be neglected. These periods are allocated three sessions within this Introduction, which is by no means a given in introductory courses on Islam. The examination of each historical period aims not only to highlight new developments but also to reveal elements of continuity.

In this lecture, it is important to me to emphasize the autonomy of Islamic history. Rather than adhering to Western epoch classifications, I base my periodization on shifts in the religious-political domain that affect the entire Islamic world. But how can such shifts be identified? Mecca is not only the city where Muḥammad founded his new religion but is also regarded to this day as the most important holy site in Islam and forms the religious center of the Islamic world. Over time, the dominion over this city has changed repeatedly. Since these shifts in power had repercussions for the entire Islamic world and also influenced the broader religious-political climate, I have used them as a basis for periodization in my lecture. Only in the periodization of the last decades have I deviated from this organizing principle because the power dynamics in Mecca remained relatively stable during this time, while other global shifts had a strong impact on the Islamic sphere.

1.3. The Situation in Late Antique Arabia and Its Influence on Islam

Mecca, the city where Muḥammad founded his new religion, is located in the western part of the Arabian Peninsula. In the Qur’an, the book that to some extent constitutes the foundational text of this new religion, the break with Arab customs of pre-Islamic times, referred to as Jāhilīyah, is emphasized in various passages (see, e.g., Q 33:33). However, Islam also reflects many elements of continuity with pre-Islamic Arab culture. The most important of these is the Arabic language. It has a long history, dating back to the first millennium BC, and its dialectal diversity is well documented through inscriptions. Since the Qur'an is also written in Arabic, the language has attained a nearly sacred status within Islamic culture. The following sections will introduce various other concepts and institutions of Late Antique Arabia that Islam has built upon.

1.3.1. The Ancient Arab Tribal Society

Tribal groups on the Arabian Peninsula during the time of Muḥammad

The ancient Arab society was organized tribally, and individuals primarily defined themselves through their tribal affiliation. The Qur'an acknowledges this social reality when addressing people in Surah 49:13: “We […] have made you [into] nations and tribes [so] that y[ou] may know one another”. An individual was thus identifiable only by their place within this system of groups and tribes, which were further subdivided into various clans and families. The great importance that the ancient Arabs placed on this form of identification is evident from the fact that, when mentioning individuals, they also specified their tribal affiliation using the nisba, an adjective formed with the suffix -ī. For example, al-Kindī is the nisba of the Kinda tribe, at-Tanūkhī of the Tanūkh tribe, and al-Makhzūmī of the Makhzūm clan. A more precise identification of an individual within this system was achieved through the so-called nasab, or lineage. This connected a person to their ancestral lineage through a line of descent shared by one or more tribal groups. The individual links in this chain of ancestors are typically connected by the term ibn ("son of...") (abbreviated as b.), and for women, bint ("daughter of..."). The Prophet’s nasab, for example, was as follows: Muḥammad ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim ibn ʿAbdmanāf ibn Quṣayy ibn Kilāb ibn Murrah ibn Kaʿb ibn Lu’ayy ibn Ghālib ibn Fihr ibn Mālik ibn an-Nadr ibn Kinānah. The tribal groups themselves were also defined in this way by a nasab. In their case, descent from a common ancestor was indicated by the term banū ("sons of...") rather than ibn or bint.

Most Arab tribes were nomadic, inhabiting the desert and steppe regions of the Arabian Peninsula, and primarily engaged in camel breeding. To obtain spoils, they conducted sudden raids on other tribes and settlements along the borders of fertile lands. The primary objective of these raids, known as ghazw, was the acquisition of camels and livestock. However, many raids also resulted in the capture of prisoners who were then forced into slavery for extended periods. It was customary for female slaves to have to be sexually available to their masters. Slavery was widespread throughout pre-Islamic Arabia, and this legal institution was later incorporated into Islam. Even in Muḥammad's household, there was initially a slave named Zayd ibn Ḥāritha, who was married to a freed Abyssinian woman with whom he had a child. When slaves were freed, they remained under the protection (walāʾ) of their former owner's tribe or clan. As Mawālī, protected clients, they formed an integral part of pre-Islamic Arab society.

In addition to the nomadic tribes, known as Bedouins, there were also sedentary tribes that engaged in agriculture or trade. For instance, the city of Yathrib, located several hundred kilometers north of Mecca, was an agglomeration of oases with a strong agricultural focus. Agriculture was also practiced in southern Mesopotamia, a region the Arabs referred to as al-ʿIrāq (“the fertile riparian zone [of the Euphrates and Tigris]”), from which the modern name Iraq is derived. Mecca, Muḥammad's hometown, was notable for its strong focus on trade.

The state of Himyar in the south of the Arabian Peninsula

There was a great disparity in power among the Arab tribes. Some were relatively weak, while others had established their own states long before Islam, such as the Himyar and Kinda in South Arabia, the Banū Ghassān in southern Syria, and the Banū Lakhm in Iraq. This power imbalance was closely linked to the concept of honor (sharaf). The tribe was led by a Sayyid (“lord”) or Shaykh; some tribal leaders even held the title of Malik (“king”). Members of the tribe were expected to pledge an oath of allegiance ( Bayʿah) to these leaders. Within the tribe, the poet (shāʿir) also played a crucial role by praising the glorious deeds of their own tribe, thereby strengthening the group's sense of unity. Additionally, the poet could support the tribe in battle by using poetic invective (hijāʾ) to denigrate the enemy.

Within the tribes, certain norms of coexistence were recognized. The value of these norms was attributed to the fact that they were based on "ancient lawmaking" (Sunnah). Since there were no separate institutions that could be called upon in the event of a violation of these norms, the community as a whole, or its constituent groups, ensured their enforcement. Consequently, sanctions were in place. If the parties involved in a dispute were unable to reach a resolution, they could appeal to an arbitrator (ḥakam) who was trusted by both sides. The most important principle in criminal justice was Qiṣāṣ, which mandated "retaliation in kind" for any inflicted harm. In cases of murder or manslaughter, this principle entailed blood vengeance. However, the group threatened by vengeance could attempt to avert it by offering blood money (diyah). Qiṣāṣ was considered a life-preserving principle (see Surah 2:179) as it acted as a deterrent, preventing ongoing bloodshed.

In addition to ordinary blood kinship, there was also the institution of milk kinship in ancient Arabia. This practice was rooted in the widespread custom, later sanctioned by the Qur'an (Q 2:233), of entrusting the breastfeeding of a child to a woman other than the mother. This practice was evidently applied to Muḥammad as well: it is reported that as a small child, he was entrusted to a wet nurse named Ḥalīmah from the nomadic tribe of Saʿd ibn Bakr, with whom he stayed for about two years. The kinship established through breastfeeding included not only the wet nurse herself but also her children and the children who had nursed from her. This relationship was considered socially equivalent to blood kinship. For example, Muḥammad himself felt a lifelong connection to the tribe of Saʿd ibn Bakr, despite their occasional alliance with his adversaries. Milk kinship also excluded the possibility of marriage, a norm that was established in the Qur'an (Q 4:23) and thus became a defining aspect of the Islamic normative system.

1.3.2. Gender Relations

A distinctive feature of late antique Arab society was the practice of visiting marriages within uxorilocal residences. In these unions, the married couple did not cohabit but maintained a relationship based on periodical visits. We are informed of such marriages through pre-Islamic Arabic poems, depicting love affairs. Many of these poems recount men visiting women at night in the tent encampments of their tribes. In some cases, these visits were clandestine, while in others, the man would come and go openly, staying with the woman for extended periods. Women involved in these relationships had the autonomy to end them on their own terms. It was not uncommon for them to engage in visiting relationships with multiple men simultaneously. Reports of uxorilocal visiting marriages are also found in the historical accounts about Muḥammad's forefathers. For instance, it is reported that his grandfather, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, was the product of a visiting marriage between his father, Hāshim, and a noblewoman in Yathrib, which took place while Hāshim was on a business trip to Palestine. The relationship of Muḥammad’s parents may have conformed to this type of marriage as well. Reportedly, his mother, ʾĀmina, continued to live with her clan, Zuhrah, during the marriage, while her husband ʿAbdallāh only visited her there. In many cases, this system of visiting marriages was linked to a matrilineal kinship structure. This meant that descent through the mother defined kinship relations, and inheritance was also passed down through the maternal line.

At the time of Muḥammad, however, Arab society was undergoing a transition from matrilineal and uxorilocal marriage structures to a system that was patrilineal and virilocal. In these new marriages, the bride moved into the husband's house upon marriage and came under his authority. The husband, who could have several such marriages, was regarded as the "lord" (baʿl) of his wives and held the exclusive right to dissolve the marriages. Upon the husband's death, authority over his wife would pass to his heirs. The new Islamic gender order emerged from the conflict between these two distinct forms of marriage.

1.3.3. Ancient Arabian Paganism and the Sacred Sites of Mecca

Our knowledge of the religious landscape in pre-Islamic Arabia is primarily derived from the works of Arab traditional literature. Among the most renowned monographic works on this subject is the “Book of Idols” (Kitāb al-Aṣnām) by Ibn al-Kalbī (d. 821). According to these sources, there were numerous shrines across Arabia during the time of the Prophet, where local deities were venerated. Some of these were astral deities, such as Yaghūth, who was considered the “Lord of Sirius”. Others were regarded as female deities, for example, the goddesses al-Lāt, Manāt and al-ʿUzzā. The deities were venerated in various shrines in the form of idols, i.e., sacred stones (anṣāb, sg. nuṣb) or statues. Specific cultic rituals, such as animal sacrifice and circumambulation, were performed at these sacred sites.

The Kaaba in 1907

An Arabian sanctuary of paramount importance was the Kaaba in Mecca, a cubic structure (hence the name al-Kaʿba = “Cube”) that housed a statue of the god Hubal. This statue served a divinatory function: individuals would cast (divination) arrows before it when seeking an oracle. The original object of veneration was a Black Stone embedded in the eastern corner of the Kaaba. In the bright morning (ḍuḥā), a communal prayer (ṣalāt) was held at the structure, involving a prostration (sujūd). A unique feature of this sanctuary was its surrounding sacred precinct, known as the Haram, within which specific prohibitions were observed (including bans on killing, fighting, hunting, and even cutting of wild plants). The Kaaba was also the destination of a pilgrimage called ʿUmrah, which involved seven circumambulations (Ṭawāf) around the building. On certain ceremonial occasions, the Kaaba was draped in precious fabrics and perfumed. To protect its interior from the flash floods, which were frequent in Mecca, the floor of the structure was elevated to head height at the beginning of 7th century. A sanctuary of comparable importance was located in the southwestern Arabian town of Tabāla, between Mecca and Yemen. Here, the tribes of Daws, Khathʿam, and Bajīla worshipped the deity Dhū l-Khalaṣa in the form of a cult stone. Due to its popularity as a pilgrimage site, the sanctuary was also referred to as the "Southern Kaaba" (al-Kaʿba al-yamānīya), in contrast to the "Northern Kaaba" (al-Kaʿba ash-shāmīya) in Mecca.

The Pre-Islamic Arabian Months
Nr	Name
1	Ṣafar I
2	Ṣafar II
3	Rabīʿ I
4	Rabīʿ II
5	Jumādā I
6	Jumādā II
7	Rajab
8	Shaʿbān
9	Ramaḍān
10	Shawwāl
11	Dhū l-Qaʿdah
12	Dhū l-Ḥijjah

The pilgrimages to various shrines were calculated according to a lunisolar calendar: the year began in autumn and consisted of twelve lunar months, each measured from one new moon to the next new moon. To maintain the start of the year in autumn, a thirteenth month was added every two or three years. This Arabic intercalation system was called nasīʾ, meaning “postponement”, because it postponed the first month of the new year. A particularly significant event in the pre-Islamic Arabian calendar was the pilgrimage known as the Ḥajj, which took place in the month of Dhū l-Ḥijjah, a month named after this pilgrimage, which in pre-Islamic times occurred in autumn. The height of the Ḥajj ritual was the grand assembly of pilgrims on the 9th day of the month at ʿArafāt, a dry mountain plain located approximately 20 kilometers east of the city of Mecca, where pilgrims stayed from noon until sunset. Following this standing ceremony, known as wuqūf, the pilgrims performed the ifāḍah -literally “outpouring”- at sunset to the sanctuary of Muzdalifah, about two hours away. The night was spent there in vigil. At sunrise on the 10th day, sacrifices were finally offered in the valley of Minā, situated closer to Mecca. This ritual, with certain modifications that will be discussed later, was incorporated into Islamic practice.

Today's Muslim pilgrims at the Wuqūf in the plain of ʿArafāt

Given the times at which the journey from ʿArafāt to Muzdalifah (at sunset) and from Muzdalifah to Minā (at sunrise) occurred in pre-Islamic times, it is speculated that this pre-Islamic Hajj was originally a sun-worship ritual. The Hajj also held great economic significance, as it was preceded by three markets lasting several days at various locations in the surrounding region, which were considered, to some extent, part of the Hajj. The last of these markets took place from the 1st to the 8th of Dhū l-Ḥijjah in [Dhū l-Majāz], a place near the plain of ʿArafāt with a small stream. Since there is no water in ʿArafāt or Muzdalifah, pilgrims utilized the final market day in Dhū l-Majāz to water their animals and stock up on water for themselves. For this reason, the 8th day of the month Dhū l-Ḥijjah is still referred to as the "Day of Watering" (Yawm at-Tarwiyah ) today.

Four months in the pre-Islamic Arabian calendar were considered sacred due to the two aforementioned pilgrimages: the spring month of Rajab because of the ʿUmrah, primarily performed during this month, and Dhū l-Ḥijjah along with the two months preceding and following it because of the Hajj. Depending on whether an intercalary month was added to the year, the first Safar following the Hajj was either considered sacred or not. The ʿUmrah involved not only the circumambulation of the Kaaba but also included several other rituals, such as walking seven times (saʿy ) between the two hills of Ṣafā and Marwah near the Kaaba. During these sacred months, a general obligation to maintain peace was in effect. Individuals intending to undertake one of the two pilgrimages were required to enter a state of consecration (Iḥrām), during which they were prohibited from cutting their hair or harming wild animals. The conclusion of this state of consecration was symbolized by the cutting of hair and the sacrifice of animals at the end of the pilgrimage. For the Hajj, this occurred in Minā, and for the ʿUmrah, near the Kaaba.

1.3.4. Magical Customs: Rituals of Sacrifice and Purification

In addition, a number of magical practices from late antique Arabia made their way into Islam. Among these, for example, is the custom of addressing individuals not directly by their name (ism) but rather indirectly, as "father" (Abū) or "mother" (Umm) of their firstborn son. This practice likely originates from the name taboo prevalent among many early peoples. Instead of the son's name, a noun could also be used to highlight a specific characteristic of the name-bearer. These kunya names have become an established feature of Islamic naming.

Another notable example is the istisqāʾ, the rain prayer. The ceremony, which took place during a public gathering, was typically conducted by a tribal leader in the presence of a holy man. The attendees would turn their outer garments inside out during the ritual. This custom was also incorporated into Islam and remains a widely accepted prayer ritual to this day. Fundamental to both pagan and Islamic rites is the notion that the community's prayer, through the holy man's closeness to God, has the power to influence God's will. Islamic hagiography contains numerous accounts of holy men who ended droughts through their supplications, a power sometimes ascribed to their graves.

Another custom adopted from pre-Islamic Arabia is the ʿAqīqah ceremony, held a few days after the birth of a boy. In this ritual, an animal was sacrificed and its meat distributed as alms. The boy's head was then anointed with the sacrificial blood of the animal. This ceremony spread alongside Islam and continues to be practiced in many Islamic countries. Today, it is typically associated with the naming of the child.

Additionally, the belief in spirit-like beings, known as jinn, was deeply ingrained in the pre-Islamic Arabian way of thinking. It was widely thought that the jinn resided at the boundaries of the heavenly spheres, where they would listen in on hidden knowledge, which they would then impart to selected earthly recipients, particularly poets. The belief in jinn entered Islam through the Qur'an, which dedicates an entire surah (Q 72) to these beings and references them in numerous other passages. Jinn continue play an important role today, especially in folk beliefs. Since jinn are believed to cause diseases and possession, many Muslims seek protection from their negative effects through the use of amulets, special prayers and magical incantations. Furthermore, exorcism practices are employed in many Islamic countries to heal those possessed by jinn.

Miswāk sticks from the Arak tree

Circumcision (khitān) was already prevalent throughout Arabia in pre-Islamic times, and being uncircumcised was regarded as a great dishonor. This notion was tacitly incorporated into Islam. Alongside male circumcision, female circumcision was also widespread. According to a tradition found in various hadith collections, Muḥammad is said to have explicitly permitted one of the “clitoris circumcisers” (muqaṭṭiʿāt al-buẓūr) to continue her craft, provided that she did not cut too deeply. Referring to this Sunnah, a “mild form circumcision” is still practiced on girls in some Islamic countries, such as Egypt, Yemen and Indonesia.

For dental cleaning, root sticks from the Arak tree (salvadora persica), referred to in Arabic as miswāk or siwāk, were used, similar to practices in East Africa and India. These fluoride-rich sticks fray upon use, making them highly suitable as toothbrushes. Since it is reported that Muḥammad frequently liked to use these twigs, many Muslims continue to consider their use to be commendable today.

1.3.5. The Late Antique Empires and the Quraysh Tribe

The Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanian Empire in the 6th Century CE

By around 600 CE, Arabia was situated on the periphery of significant empires. To the north, the Eastern Roman Empire and the Persian Sassanid Empire vied for influence and control. The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, encompassed the Eastern Mediterranean regions (Asia Minor, Syria), including parts of North Africa (primarily Egypt), while the Persian Sassanid Empire streched from Mesopotamia across Persia to northwestern India and Central Asia. However, the Sassanid capital, Ctesiphon, was located in Iraq and thus not far away.

Several Arab tribal states had become vassals of these empires by the end of the 6th century. The Banū Ghassān in Syria were vassals of Byzantine, with their residence in the tent city of al-Jābiyah in the Golan. The Sassanids had several Arab vassals, each overseen locally by a Sassanid governor: in the border region between Iraq and the Arabian desert, the Lakhmids ruled from their capital in al-Ḥīra; in Bahrain (which at that time referred to the entire Arabian Gulf coast), the Tamīmī tribal chief al-Mundhir ibn Sāwā; in Oman, King Julandā ibn al-Mustakbir of the Azd tribe; and in Yemen, the puppet ruler Saif ibn Dhī Yazan of the Himyarite tribe.

One of the few regions on the Arabian Peninsula that managed to preserve its political independence during this period was the western Arabian Ḥijāz, with the the cities of Mecca, Yathrib, and at-Ṭā'if. Mecca was ruled by the Quraysh tribe, which considered itself a branch of the North Arabian tribe of Kināna. Unlike the South Arabian tribes, the North Arabian tribes traced their lineage to Abraham. This claim does not contradict prevalent beliefs of the time, as early Christian church historians regarded the descent of the Arabs from Abraham, through his son Ishmael, born to the maidservant Hagar, as a given. Together with the Kināna and the Khuzāʿa, the Quraysh formed an amphictyony centered around Mecca’s sacred precinct (Haram). Their members were referred to as "the Sanctified" (ḥums) and were required to observe specific taboos during a state of consecration. Opposed to them were the other Arabs, referred to as the 'Profane' (ḥilla), who were not obligated to observe these taboos; however, they were only permitted to perform the circumambulation of the Kaaba either naked or in garments borrowed from the Sanctified.

The Quraysh were divided into various clans. Six of these —ʿAbd al-Dār, ʿAbd Shams, Banū Nawfal, Banū Hāshim, Banū al-Muṭṭalib, and Banū Asad— held particular prestige as descendants of Quṣayy ibn Kilāb. Quṣayy is regarded as the true founder of Mecca. According to Arab tradition, five generations before Muḥammad, Quṣayy wrested control of the city from the South Arabian tribe of Khuzāʿah and reorganized the cult around the Kaaba. He is said to have precisely defined the boundaries of the Haram and marked them with stone pillars. The cultic, political, and military offices that Quṣayy reportedly said to have established in Mecca included: 1. guardianship of the Kaaba, 2. provision of water to pilgrims, 3. provision of food to pilgrims, 4. chairmanship of the council, 5. the bearing of the standard, which was linked to the authority to declare war, and 6. supreme command in war. Quṣayy is credited with constructing an assembly hall in Mecca for the council that included representatives from the various Quraysh clans. This was known as [Dār an-Nadwa] and also served as a venue for ceremonies (such as marriages, circumcision celebrations, etc.). By the early 7th century, these offices were under the control of Quṣayy’s descendants: the ʿAbd al-Dār held the guardianship of the Kaaba and inherited the Dār an-Nadwa; the Banū Hāshim were responsible for providing water and food to the Meccan pilgrims; and the ʿAbd Shams carried the war standard.

Externally, the Quraysh maintained a network of alliances with other tribes across the Arabian Peninsula. Together, they sought to exert control over the trade routes of the Arabian Peninsula, though they occasionally came into conflict with other tribal alliances, as in the so-called Fijār War (circa 590). The name originated from the fact that the military actions took place during the sacred months (see above 1.3.3), which constituted a sacrilege (fijār). Mecca’s principal trading partners were South Arabia, referred to as “the land to the right” (Yaman, from which the word Yemen derives), and Syria, “the land to the left” (Shaʾm). Islamic tradition, in connection with the Qur'anic reference of the "journey of summer and winter" (Q 106:2), reports that the Quraysh undertook a caravan journey to Yemen in the summer and to Syria in the winter. The introduction of these two annual caravan journeys is attributed to Hāshim, the father of the Banū Hāshim. By the end of the 6th century, however, the Banū Hāshim had been overtaken in trade by the Makhzūm, another Qurayshite clan. The Makhzūm, who did not trace their lineage to Quṣayy, had also attained political leadership (siyāda) of the Quraysh at that time.

1.3.6. Religious Transformation and the Ḥanīfs

The culture of the two late antique empires exerted influence, on various levels, of the Arab milieu in which Islam emerged. Of particular significance was the sphere of religion. The Byzantine Empire had a distinct Christian orientation and pursued an active policy of spreading this religion. In contrast, the Sassanian Empire was a multi-religious state. While Zoroastrianism played a key role in supporting the state, there were also other significant religious minorities, in particular Jews, Christians, Mandaeans, and Manichaeans. A similarly high degree of religious diversity likely prevailed in the milieu from which Islam emerged. This is evident from a verse in the Qur'an (Q 22:17) that enumerates the various religious groups with which the followers of the newly established religion of Muḥammad were confronted: in addition to the followers of paganism, Jews, Sabians, Christians, and Zoroastrians (Majūs) are mentioned. The concept of religion (Dīn) was likely adopted into Islam from the Sasanian Empire. It traces back to the Middle Persian word dēn, used in the Sasanian Empire to denote the various religious communities.

Regarding the individual religions, Zoroastrians primarily served as administrators, landlords, and soldiers in the Arab vassal states of the Sassanian Empire in Iraq, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. Judaism was notably prevalent among the Kinda in South Arabia and in the oases of Yathrib and Khaybar in western Arabia. Prior to the migration of the two non-Jewish tribes of Aws and Khazraj from South Arabia to Yathrib, the Jews in this city -where Muḥammad later emigrated with his followers- are said to have even constituted the majority of the population.

Christianity was widespread among several tribes of central Arabia, such as the Tayyi' and Ḥanīfa, but had a particularly strong presence in South Arabia. Najrān, in northern Yemen, developed into a holy city of Christian Arabs under the influence of the Christian Kingdom of Aksum. Around 525, an Aksumite army from present-day Ethiopia conquered Yemen. The Aksumite viceroy Abraha, who ruled Yemen from around 535 onward, had churches built at several locations and constructed a cathedral in his capital, Ṣanʿāʾ. He clearly viewed the pagan sanctuary of Mecca as a rival, as evidenced by his mid-6th-century military campaign to bring it under his control. During this campaign, which ultimately failed, he is said to have brought elephants with him. The event was so momentous that the Arabs began dating time based on the "Year of the Elephant". This event is also reflected in the Qur'an (cf. Surah 105 ).

Technical Drawing of the Kaaba with the Ḥaṭīm Facing Northeast, Toward Jerusalem

Jews and Christians spread knowledge of Judeo-Christian traditions during this period. The Qur'an assumes familiarity with such knowledge from its audience, as it references numerous figures from the Old Testament, such as Moses (Mūsā), Noah (Nūḥ), David (Dāwūd), Solomon (Sulaymān), and Jonah (Yūnus). Their stories are often referenced in a manner that suggests the listeners are already acquainted with the details. According to Arab historians, there were images of Abraham, as well as Jesus and Mary in the Kaaba of Mecca in pre-Islamic times. It is even possible that a Christian cult existed at the Kaaba. This is suggested by the fact that the building originally featured an apse oriented towards Jerusalem. This has survived to this day as a wall projection known as the Ḥaṭīm.

Through Judaism and Christianity, monotheism also entered the religious worldview of the Arabs during this time. The monotheistic God was invoked in South Arabia under the names ilahan and rḥmnan (from the Jewish-Aramaic raḥmānā), both of which were mentioned in official inscriptions of the Himyarite state. Both names have also entered Islam as designations for the One God in slightly altered forms: Allāh (from al-ilāh “the God”) and ar-Raḥmān (see 2.2.2. below). There is a recognizable continuity here with the state religion of ancient South Arabia. Allāh was already worshipped in pre-Islamic times in Mecca, though predominantly not as a monotheistic but as a henotheistic god. Qur'anic verses report that Muḥammad's contemporaries equated jinn with Him and considered them His relatives (Q 6:100; 37:158). The Qur'an also indicates that the deities al-Lāt, Manāt, and al-ʿUzzā were regarded by the Meccans as the "daughters of Allāh" (cf. Q 53:19f). However, Allāh already held the significance of a supreme deity, surpassing the other gods. When the Bedouins came to Mecca to pray, they proclaimed Allāhu akbar ('Allāh is greater') three times, thereby expressing that they regarded Him as the most powerful among the deities. This formula of proclamation was incorporated into Islam and is known as the Takbīr.

Illustration of Umayya's Description of the Four Throne Bearers in a Persian Manuscript of al-Qazwīnī's Cosmography (d. 1283)

The Qur'an states that the religious proclamation that God would resurrect the dead astonished people of that time (cf. Q 56:47). They considered an afterlife to be inconceivable and regarded death as something final (see Q 45:24). Nonetheless, certain individuals were already proclaiming the message of resurrection at this time. It is reported that the preacher Quss ibn Sāʿida once addressed the crowd at the marketplace of ʿUkāẓ in the presence of the young Muḥammad with the following words: “Oh people, listen and remember! [...] God has a religion that is more pleasing to Him more than the one you practice. Why should people die and not return?”

The religious culture of Arabia was therefore already undergoing transformation on the eve of Islam. Even in the cities of the Ḥijāz, prior to the advent of Muḥammad, there were individuals who, though neither Christians nor Jews, held monotheistic views. They are referred to as Ḥanīfs in the Arabic sources. Two notable examples are the poet Umayya ibn Abī aṣ-Ṣalt from at-Ṭā'if and Zayd ibn ʿAmr from Mecca. It is reported that Umayya read the scriptures of Jews and Christians, prohibited the consumption of alcoholic beverages, and anticipated the emergence of a prophet among the Arabs. The Christian-Jewish influence is evident in his poetry through his mention of angels. In one of his poems, he describes the four bearers of the divine throne in terms of the four symbols of the Evangelists. Since Muḥammad declared these verses to be true, they were incorporated into Islamic cosmology. The poems attributed to Zayd express a strong rejection of ancient Arab polytheism. He considered himself a follower of the religion of Abraham (dīn Ibrāhīm) and prayed toward the Kaaba, the prayer direction of Abraham and Ishmael. These concepts are also referenced in the Qur'an, where it is stated that Abraham, following God's command, purified the Meccan sanctuary for all who circumambulate it, stand in prayer, and prostrate in worship (see Q 22:26).

1.4. Further Reading

• Aziz Al-Azmeh: The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity: Allah and His People. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014.
• Meir Bravmann: The spiritual background of early Islam. Studies in Ancient Arab concepts. Leiden 1972.
• Patricia Crone: Meccan trade and the rise of Islam. Princeton 1987.
• Toufic Fahd: Le Panthéon de l’Arabie centrale à la veille de l’Hégire. Paris 1968.
• Iwona Gajda: Le royaume de Himyar à l’époque monotheiste. Paris 2009.
• Agnes Imhof: Religiöser Wandel und die Genese des Islam. Das Menschenbild altarabischer Panegyriker im 7. Jahrhundert. Würzburg: Ergon 2004.
• M.J. Kister: „Labbayka, Allāhumma, Labbayka…' On a Monotheistic Aspect of a Jāhiliyya Practice” in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 2 (1980): 33-57.
• Tobias Nünlist: Dämonenglaube im Islam: eine Untersuchung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung schriftlicher Quellen aus der vormodernen Zeit (600–1500). Berlin: De Gruyter 2015.
• Otto Procksch: Über die Blutrache bei den vorislamischen Arabern und Mohammeds Stellung zu ihr. Leipzig: Teubner 1899. Digitalisat
• Uri Rubin: „The Kaʿba: Aspects of its Ritual Functions and Position in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Times” in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 13 (1986) 97-131. Digitalisat
• Uri Rubin: „Ḥanīfiyya and Kaʿba: An Inquiry into the Arabian Pre-Islamic Background of dīn Ibrāhīm“ in Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 13 (1990) 85–112. Digitalisat
• Julius Wellhausen: Reste arabischen Heidentums. 2. Aufl. Berlin: Reimer 1897. Digitalisat

1.5. Questions

1. Provide an overview of the history of the term “Islam”.

2. Describe how the pre-Islamic Arabian society was organized.

3. Describe the religious landscape of the Arabian Peninsula in pre-Islamic times.

4. Provide an overview of pre-Islamic pilgrimage practices on the Arabian Peninsula.

5. What was the significance of the Kaaba in pre-Islamic Arabia?

6. Explain the meaning and functions of Nisba, Nasab, and Kunya.

7. Describe the concept of milk kinship.

8. Identify and describe religious and magical practices from ancient Arabian times that were incorporated into Islam.