Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Ulysses pact and motivation

Ulysses pact and motivation:
What is the Ulysses pact and how does it relate to motivation?

Overview

Figure 1. Ulysses tied to the mast of his ship, painted by John William Waterhouse

Ulysses pact scenario

The Ulysses Pact originates from a famous episode in Homer's Odyssey [Add Wikipedia link], where Ulysses (otherwise known as Odysseus), on his journey home, must sail past the island of the Sirens (mythical creatures whose enchanting song lures sailors to their doom). Ulysses knew he could not resist the Sirens' call but wanted to hear it nonetheless: he orders his crew to fill their ears with beeswax so they cannot hear the Sirens' song, and instructs them to tie him tightly to the mast of the ship (see Figure 1). He ordered them not to change course under any circumstances and to attack him if he were to break free of his bonds. Ulysses was driven temporarily insane and struggled to break free of his bonds to meet with the Sirens, which would have meant his death. His men, however, kept their promise, and they refused to release him.

Maintaining self-control against immediate temptations can be a daily struggle. Whether it’s resisting unhealthy foods while dieting, staying focused on long-term financial goals, or avoiding procrastination in academic or professional tasks, the challenge is universal. This problem is critical because failure to exercise self-control can lead to negative consequences such as poor health, financial instability, and unfulfilled potential.

The importance of this issue lies in its broad applicability to human behavior. Self-control is not just about resisting temptations; it’s about aligning actions with long-term goals and values. When failing to maintain self-control, it can be a demoralizing experience halting progression or resulting in complete failure. Developing an understanding of how to manage and overcome these challenges is crucial for maintaining motivation, and to align one's actions with their personal values.

Psychological research provides us with a deeper understanding of self-control and the strategies that can enhance it. Value based approaches such as Ulysses pact and Self-determination theory (SDT) have proven effective in increasing motivation for behaviors like exercise (Brinthaupt et al., 2013; Ng et al., 2012). By making a decision in advance to restrict one’s future choices, individuals can safeguard against the temptation to stray from their value based goals (Trope & Fishbach, 2000). These approaches reduce cognitive load not just by preserving willpower, but by limiting the need to exercise willpower by removing temptations. Motivational psychology provides evidence that strategies like the Ulysses pact improve self-control and long-term goal achievement (Brinthaupt et al., 2013; Dresser, 1984).

Focus questions:

What psychological principles underpin the effectiveness of the Ulysses Pact in enhancing self-control?

How can the Ulysses Pact be applied in various real-life situations to improve motivation and goal attainment?

What limitations or potential drawbacks are there when using precommitment strategies like the Ulysses Pact?

Psychological principles of the Ulysses pact

This section explores the Psychological theories that make Ulysses pact an effective strategy in self-control and resisting temptation. Ulysses pact is the creation a binding contract with ones[grammar?] self when in state of mental clarity in order to continue staying true to the path through obstacles and impulses. Ulysses pact can be used to reduce Cognitive Dissonance and increase one's sense of autonomy.[factual?]

Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is a mental barrier or disturbance caused by the misalignment of one's beliefs and actions. It can be debilitating as one struggles to follow through with a plan of action such as commitment to a fitness routine (Harmon-Jones & Harmon-Jones, 2022) due to the mental discomfort or anguish.

Scenario 2

Deborah struggles with her weight, [grammar?] she believes it is a good thing to have a healthy, fit body, but she has never been able to implement exercise into her routine and regularly eats junk food. This is a misalignment of beliefs and actions, leading to mental discomfort. (Guilt, anguish, self-deprecation)

The Ulysses pact creates a binding commitment that aligns long-term goals with one's beliefs, reducing the tempting allure exacerbated by cognitive dissonance. For example, dissonance might occur when someone avoids exercise despite knowing they should. Dissonance may also arise when one starts exercising, as it can be seen as an unnecessary exertion (Harmon-Jones & Harmon-Jones, 2022). So, how can dissonance and the Ulysses pact address this? Ulysses pact can help maintain commitment by keeping long-term goals in focus. Additionally, though exertion of effort may contradict one's beliefs about reducing effort, studies show that the more effort put towards achievements, the greater value the individual places on the reward that comes from the effort and reduces CD (Harmon-Jones et al., 2020). Aronson and Mills (1959) examined contentment within social groups, which increased when dissonance was reduced. They put people through a phase of embarrassment as initiation. This may not be ethical, but the point remains that a reduction in dissonance aids in attaining reward (social acceptance in this case). Therefore, by attributing value to a goal, such as Deborah's goal to have a healthy body, she could decrease dissonance and increase her perceived value of the reward.

By preemptively resolving the conflict between short-term desires and long-term objectives, the pact minimizes the discomfort associated with cognitive dissonance. Anticipating roadblocks is critical; just as Ulysses tied himself to the mast to resist temptation, individuals can set up strategies to avoid tempting situations. For example, removing unhealthy foods from your pantry reduces the CD experienced from cravings (Trope & Fishbach, 2000). Ulysses wanted to experience the call of the sirens but for most people, it is more effective to remove the temptation totally (Ent et al., 2015). It is evident that higher levels of self-control are linked to avoiding, not merely resisting temptation (Ent et al., 2015). By removing temptations and focusing on the value of the goal, cognitive dissonance can be minimized, making it easier to honour one’s pact.

Individuals are motivated to honour their precommitments to avoid the psychological discomfort of dissonance they might experience when straying from their value-driven path. This motivation is heavily influenced by one's commitment. Commitment is defined by Meyer & Herscovitch (2001) as "a force that binds an individual to a course of action that is of relevance to a particular target”. Unsurprisingly, it plays a large role in precommitment strategies like Ulysses pact. According to Meyer et al. (2004), increased levels of commitment improve follow-through on long-term goals, as outlined in their 'Employee Commitment and Motivation Model'.

Analyzing one's beliefs to clarify the value of one's goal and putting effort into that goal may increase its perceived sense of value (Harmon-Jones et al., 2020). Removing temptations to stray from the path may positively influence one's commitment(Ent et al., 2015; Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001), collectively reducing CD and increasing motivation to comply with the pact.

Self-determination theory and pre-commitment

Figure 2. Self-determination theory.

[grammar?] Self-determination theory (SDT) (a framework to understand personality and motivation) focuses on how individuals interact with and depend on their social environments. It distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and how they drive behaviour. SDT is based on the basic physiological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (see Figure 2) as a means to foster motivation, well being and growth (Legault, 2020; Ng et al., 2012). Ulysses pact supports autonomy, competence and relatedness.

The Ulysses pact empowers individuals by giving them a sense of control over their actions, enhancing their motivation. Ulysses pact is a self directed process, in SDT self directed behaviour where one believes they have control over their actions is known as autonomy and increases their intrinsic motivation (Ng et al., 2012).

Precommitments like the Ulysses pact helps individuals develop a sense of competence by providing structure and clear steps toward achieving long-term goals. When an individual approaches a task that is complex, they may feel it is daunting and ambiguous leading to feelings of incompetence. A structured path that is set out pre-emptively with conditions in place could increase that sense of competence, further enhancing motivation (Gagné & Deci, 2005)

In some cases, to develop a sense of relatedness, people may involve others in their Ulysses pact, whether through accountability partnerships, shared goals, or the pact might introduce them to a community of people following a similar behavioural path. For example, Nike run clubs is a place where people getting into running can meet and develop a community sense. This sense of connection and shared commitment bolsters relatedness and fosters intrinsic motivation, which is highly influential in sustainable behaviours.

Quiz

Applicability of Ulysses pact

This section explores how the pact can practically be applied to enhance motivation and self-control in different real-life scenarios, such as diet, exercise, wellbeing, finance, and personal development.

Health and wellness

In the context of health and wellness, pre-commitment plans such as Ulysses pact can be a powerful tool for maintaining discipline in diet, exercise, and wellbeing (Brinthaupt et al., 2013).

Diet: The Ulysses pact helps individuals resist cravings by precommitting to limit their food choices. For instance, someone may remove unhealthy foods from their pantry, creating extra barriers to attain those foods. Individuals who increase barriers between them and their temptations show increased sustainability as barriers are increasingly likely to reduce the occurrence of a behaviour (Ardichvili et al., 2003; Trope & Fishbach, 2000).
Exercise: The pact can structure an exercise routine, creating a workout schedule or using accountability partners like gym buddies to maintain consistency. A group held goal can reinforce commitment and motivation, aiding in the sustainability of the behaviour (Chow & Chan, 2008).
Wellbeing: Diet and exercise will majorly influence physical wellbeing, however, things such as scheduling health check-ups and setting out time for social interaction will also help overall wellbeing. Individuals who commit to schedules such as this will majorly improve their sense of wellbeing. Research shows that strong social connections lead to lower stress levels, better mental health, and even increased longevity (Umberson & Montez, 2010). Therefore implementing Ulysses pact (eg. scheduling appointments) could be an effective strategy in maintaining a healthy lifestyle that aligns with one's beliefs.

Financial management

Financial management often requires long-term discipline and delayed gratification. The Ulysses pact can help individuals stay on track with their financial goals by setting up barriers to impulsive spending. If one desires financial prosperity, then a value based model like Ulysses pact is effective at aligning their actions with those desires (Brinthaupt et al., 2013), whether it is through automatic payments, automatic transfers and pre-emptive budgeting.

Budgeting is an excellent example of Ulysses pact, [grammar?] it is an effective way of planning for the future and holding oneself accountable. An effective budget prioritises necessary expenses such as rent, electricity, groceries, over unnecessary temptations (Kapoor et al., 2018). It will outline the estimated income for a given month, take away necessities, then savings, then what is leftover is allocated to wants (the temptations most will normally prioritise). Setting out a clear plan of action for the entire month helps individuals prioritize essential expenses and maintain control over their financial resources (Kapoor et al., 2018). This could potentially aid their sense of autonomy and competence. Additionally, by placing savings second to necessities, budgeters can accumulate wealth over time leading to their initial desire for financial prosperity.

One potential method is to set up automatic payments, such as rent and bills, this pre-emptive action forces individuals to prioritize essential expenses. One who budgets effectively could benefit from automatic payments as it could ease cognitive load involved in managing expenses, likely increasing the sustainability of the behaviour.

Investments are a key component of long-term financial planning and can be integrated into a Ulysses pact to ensure consistent progress toward financial goals. By setting up regular contributions to investment accounts, individuals can reduce the temptation to spend money on short-term desires, ensuring that a portion of their income is regularly directed toward growth-focused investments. Kapoor et al. (2018), emphasizes the importance of starting early, diversifying investments, and consistently contributing to portfolios over time. Hallman and Rosenbloom (2003) highlights that having a diversified portfolio can help individuals mitigate risk while accumulating wealth for the future. By investing into index funds, individuals can have a diversified portfolio with minimal effort, that is safe and enduring, reinforcing the long-term benefits of strategies like Ulysses pact in the realm of financial planning.

Quiz

Effectiveness and limitations of Ulysses pact

It is important to note not only the benefits but the limitations of Ulysses pact, as with many principles and strategies it is not universally applicable. Its success largely depends on the strength of the commitment and the individual's ability to follow through with the pact.

Where are pre-commitment strategies effective and where are they not?

Pre-commitment strategies like the Ulysses pact, have been shown to effectively reduce impulsive decisions which is a common problem in self-control scenarios, particularly when individuals are faced with temptations that could derail their long-term goals. Trope and Fishbach (2000) argue that pre-commitment strategies work by limiting future choices and devaluing temptations, thereby reducing the cognitive burden associated with making decisions in the heat of the moment. This strategy helps individuals prioritize their long-term goals over short-term temptations by "binding" them to a future course of action that is difficult to deviate from.(Brinthaupt et al., 2013;Trope & Fishbach, 2000)

Ariely and Wertenbroch (2002) expand on this by noting that many individuals recognize their self-control issues and actively implement pre-commitment strategies to overcome them. The researchers found that these strategies can be moderately effective, however, individuals often set suboptimal plans that do not reach their max potential (Ariely & Wertenbroch, 2002). This highlights the importance of carefully designing the Ulysses Pact to ensure the plan is both realistic and stringent enough to produce the desired results.

Drawbacks and challenges

The Ulysses pact can be of great benefit in health and wellbeing though there should be limitations placed so as not to impose on another's autonomy (Dresser, 1984). What's more is the previously mentioned complex or suboptimal implementation means the strategy may not be super effective in all cases.

Dresser (1984) highlights the ethical nature of Ulysses pact when used in a medical setting, she mentions the complex nature of human behaviour being "fraught with inconsistency, spontaneity, [and] changes of heart". She argues that enforcing a Ulysses pact on an individual should only occur in extreme circumstances, such as when a person poses a serious threat to themselves or others. This is a more extreme example, but it shows that Ulysses pact is not applicable everywhere, it is context dependent and should never come at the expense of another's autonomy.

Ariely and Wertenbroch (2002) discuss how most individuals tend to implement pre-commitment strategies, like the Ulysses Pact, in a suboptimal manner. People often set themselves unrealistic or poorly structured goals, which makes the strategies less effective. Poor implementation can weaken the effectiveness of the pact, especially if individuals repeatedly allow themselves to break their own rules.

Balancing a pact that is realistic and stringent is difficult. The plan must be strict enough to prioritize long-term goals while remaining feasible to avoid frustration and failure. Ariely and Wertenbroch (2002) note that individuals often struggle to strike this balance, either setting overly rigid rules that lead to burnout or lenient plans that fail to curb impulsive behaviors effectively.

Conclusion

The Ulysses pact is a theoretical tool used in healthcare, finances and personal development. Some of the psychological principles serving as its foundation are cognitive dissonance and self-determinations[spelling?] theory (Harmon-Jones & Harmon-Jones, 2022; Ng et al., 2012); through these principles, the pact aims to align an individuals[grammar?] actions with their values to create sustainable motivation. This works by committing oneself to a plan of action while in a state of mental clarity, pre-emptively safeguarding against perceived barriers and reducing impulsive stimuli that could compromise the value-based objective of the individual.

Beyond just theory, the pact must be practically applicable and provide tangible value. The pact is effective in areas such as diet, exercise, budgeting and investing, where one may be tempted to engage in short-term gratifying behaviour that might come at the expense of their value-based objective. The pact aims to increase autonomy, competence, and relatedness, reduce cognitive load, minimise the decision-making burden, and devalue the temptations to make the plan more sustainable (Trope & Fishbach, 2000). The pact can be effective, however, it has it's limits as mentioned by Ariely & Wertenbroch (2002). The pact is typically enforced and planned by the individual seeking to make the behavioural change, and Ariely found that while this shows some effect, people tend to set poorly structured and sub-optimal guidelines resulting in only minor effects or failure. There is a challenge in finding the right balance, creating a pact that is both stringent enough to deter impulsive actions but flexible enough to avoid frustration or burnout. Moreover, ethical considerations must be taken into account. Dresser (1984) emphasises that precommitment strategies should not infringe on personal autonomy, particularly in sensitive areas like medical treatment, showing that its application is context-dependent.

Ultimately, the pact can be utilised as a tool to maintain motivation, and manage human behaviour in accordance with their long-term value based goals. There is benefit in health and wealth, but the limitations prove it is often implemented sub-optimally. Individuals could curve[say what?] the poor implementation by setting a reasonable plan that caters to their own perceived shortcomings, and/or having an accountability partner that[grammar?] can help maintain their motivation to comply to the plan, thereby increasing the effectivenes[spelling?] of [grammar?] Ulysses pact.

References

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Ariely, D., & Wertenbroch, K. (2002). Procrastination, Deadlines, and Performance: Self-Control by Precommitment. Psychological Science, 13(3), 219–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00441

Aronson E., & Mills J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59(2), 177–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0047195

Brinthaupt, T. M., Kang, M., & Anshel, M. H. (2013). Changes in exercise commitment following a values-based wellness program. Journal of Sport Behavior, 36(1), 3–22. https://ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/changes-exercise-commitment-following-values/docview/1287026415/se-2

Chow, W. S., & Chan, L. S. (2008). Social network, social trust and shared goals in organizational knowledge sharing. Information & Management, 45(7), 458–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2008.06.007

Dresser, R. (1984). Bound to Treatment: The Ulysses Contract. The Hastings Center Report, 14(3), 13–16. https://doi.org/10.2307/3561181

Ent, M. R., Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (2015). Trait self-control and the avoidance of temptation. Personality and Individual Differences, 74, 12–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.031

Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 331–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322

Hallman, G. V., & Rosenbloom, J. S. (2003). Personal Financial Planning, Seventh Edition. Employee Benefits Journal, 28(4), 94-.

Harmon-Jones E., Clarke D., Paul K., & Harmon-Jones C. (2020). The effect of perceived effort on reward valuation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00157

Harmon-Jones, E., & Harmon-Jones, C. (2022). Individual differences in dissonance arousal/reduction relate to physical exercise: Testing the action-based model. PloS One, 17(10), e0275990–e0275990. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275990

Kapoor, J. R., Dlabay, L. R., Hughes, R. J., & Stevenson, L. (2018). Personal finance. Pearson.

Legault, L. (2020). Self-determination theory. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T. K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1162

Meyer, J. P., Becker, T. E., & Vandenberghe, C. (2004). Employee Commitment and Motivation: A Conceptual Analysis and Integrative Model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(6), 991–1007. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.991

Meyer, J. P., & Herscovitch, L. (2001). Commitment in the workplace: toward a general model. Human Resource Management Review, 11(3), 299–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(00)00053-X

Ng, J. Y. Y., Ntoumanis, N., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Duda, J. L., & Williams, G. C. (2012). Self-Determination Theory Applied to Health Contexts: A Meta-Analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(4), 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612447309

Trope, Y., & Fishbach, A. (2000). Counteractive Self-Control in Overcoming Temptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 493–506. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.493

Umberson, D., & Montez, J. K. (2010). Social Relationships and Health: A Flashpoint for Health Policy. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1_suppl), S54–S66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383501

External links

Increase your brain's will power | David Eagleman (Youtube, 2017)
Modelthinkers | Ulysses pact (Model Thinkers, 2022)
Self-determination theory | Edward Deci (Youtube, 2017)