Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Temporal motivation theory

Temporal motivation theory:
What is temporal motivation theory and how does it influence decision-making?

Overview

Figure 1 TMT suggests that scrolling on your phone may provide more immediate gratification, compared to the work due in the distant future.

Have you ever had a really important exam coming up - one that could significantly impact your future? You understand how crucial it is to pass, and you're confident in your ability to understand the content if you just put in the effort. Only when you sit down to study, something keeps stopping you from making the most of your time? (See Figure 1) You begin you find yourself distracted by almost anything else. You find yourself checking your phone constantly, cleaning your room and even reorganising your wardrobe. Even though you are aware of how important this exam is you keep putting it off to do other things that provide you with immediate satisfaction?

Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) is a psychological framework that explains how time-related factors influence motivation. Developed by Piers Steel and Cornelius J. König in 2006, TMT integrates elements from various motivation theories to provide a comprehensive understanding of why people procrastinate, how they prioritise tasks, and what drives them to complete certain activities (Steel & König, 2006). Temporal Motivation Theory argues that motivation is shaped through the interaction of expectancy, value, delay and impulsiveness. It explains that decision-making and procrastination are driven by decreased motivation when rewards are delayed, particularly in impulsive individuals, leading to a preference for short-term satisfaction over long-term goals. For a deeper understanding of student motivation, see the book chapter on student motivation theories.

This book chapter will explain Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) and its influence on decision making, highlighting its significance in practical everyday applications. Understanding TMT is crucial not only for enhancing productivity for individuals but also for designing effective strategies in education, occupational management and goal-setting.

Case Study

Jason just been selected to run a major project for a company he has always dreamed to work for. The six-month project is highly important for the company as well as his success and career advancement. He has extremely high confidence that he can successfully manage this project.

However, as weeks pass, Jason faces regular decisions on how to allocate time and resources. In the beginning his motivation is strong as he faces challenges head on and as they arise. However, the larger more critical tasks have deadlines that are weeks if not months away. Due to the difficulty of these tasks and the fact that the rewards for completing them are not immediate, he begins to delay them. As a result, he finds himself focusing on smaller more immediate tasks that can be done quickly and provide him with instant gratification. Despite understanding the importance of the long-term tasks and the importance they have to his success, the decisions he is making reflect a preference for short-term gratification and satisfaction.

Focus questions

[Use bullet-points as demonstrated in Tutorial 2]

- How does instant gratification affect motivation and therefore decision-making?
- What is the relationship between TMT and decision making in different aspects of one's life?
- How does TMT influence procrastination tendencies in educational and workplace settings?
- How can Jason improve his decision making to improve productivity and success?

Temporal Motivation Theory

[Provide more detail]

What is Temporal Motivation Theory?

Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) is a psychological framework developed by Piers Steel and Cornelius J, König in 2006, that explains how time-related factors influence motivation through the integration of multiple other theories (Steel & König, 2006).
Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) suggests that motivation is largely influenced by the interplay of expectancy, value, delay, and impulsiveness. When individuals have high confidence in completing a task (expectancy) and the task is perceived as valuable, motivation is increased, leading to reduced procrastination (Steel et al.,2018).
If the task is aversive or the reward is delayed, motivation decreases, especially in individuals who are highly impulsive. As the deadline approaches, motivation tends to rise, driven by the urgency of completion and the decreasing delay, which counteracts procrastination tendencies.

The TMT Formula

A simplified formula has been developed to understand the theory and suggests: Motivation = Expectancy x Value / Impulsiveness x Delay
In which, Expectancy refers to the perceived probability that a task will be successful and Value represents the reward and satisfaction the individual associates with achieving their goal. As both Expectancy and Value, so does the individuals motivation (Ruth Netzer Turgeman & Pollak, 2023).
Impulsiveness refers to the sensitivity to temptations experienced by the individual (i.e. how prone they are to give in to short term goals rather than long-term ones). Delay refers to the time between the current behaviour and the reward. The higher the impulsiveness and the longer the delay, the lower the motivation becomes (Ruth Netzer Turgeman & Pollak, 2023).

Integration with Other Theories

TMT is a meta-theory, which combines the core principles and ideas of a number of other theories, including;

Expectancy Value Theory (EVT): EVT suggests that motivation relies on/ is driven by the individuals expectation of success and the value they place relative to the task. For example, if a student was to find a task particularly challenging, their expectancy value would be lower, leading to a decrease in overall motivation (Shang et al., 2022)

Hyperbolic Discounting: Suggests that people are more inclined to choose smaller, more immediate rewards, rather than later and larger ones.

Need Theory: Maslow's theory of needs (1954) focuses on the array of needs that drive human behaviour. It suggests that individuals are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs will be more important than others, influencing behaviour (Noltemeyer et al., 2012).

What is Decision-Making?

Decision making refers to the cognitive process of choosing or selecting a course of action between two or more options. These options can range from the relatively clear cut to the complex and take into consideration an individual's goals, values and available information (Wang & Ruhe, 2007).
Effective decision-making is important for achieving goals, solving problems, managing resources and people efficiently, assessing risks, adapting to change and achieve success. Especially for the unstable environments in which organisations and individuals operate today (Nadolna & Beyer, 2021).

How does TMT Influence Decision-Making?

Task Prioritisation

Figure 2. TMT can help explain how individuals can manage their time in a more productive way

TMT explains that people are more motivated to choose and make decisions regarding the tasks that will provide them with immediate rewards over those with delayed outcomes. This means when individuals are faced with multiple decisions, they might prioritise those that offer quicker gratification, even if the long-term, benefits of another task are greater (Steel et al., 2018). For example, someone who is trying to eat healthier may see the immediate pleasure of junk food as more rewarding then the long term benefits of healthy eating, leading them to choose the junk food despite their future goal.

Time-management and Procrastination

TMT explores decision making in regards to procrastination and time management (see Figure 2), explaining that the longer the delay before receiving a reward, the less motivated people will be to work on that task. It explores the idea that decisions are delayed until the deadline approaches and the delay decreases, suddenly increasing the individuals motivation (Bok et al., 2024).

Goals

TMT influences decision-making by shaping how individuals choose and pursue goals. TMT suggests that motivation increases as deadlines or the finishing product approaches, causing procrastination for those who struggle with distant goals. Additionally, TMT explains intention-action gap, which suggests that individuals fail to follow through with plans and actions, ofter reversing their preferences as deadlines approach. This results in people delaying their efforts until the last minute, impacting their decision-making and ability to meet deadlines effectively (Steel et al., 2018).

Effort Allocation

Finally, TMT influences decision making by determining the amount of effort a person will produce when completing a task or behaviour. It suggests that when faced with a task individuals think about two things; how likely they are to succeed and how rewarding the task will be (expectancy and value). If the task is viewed as valuable and there is a strong likelihood for success, an individual is more likely to choose it over another task. Conversely, if they believe they will fail and/or the reward is minimal they will be more inclined to choose to avoid it or put less effort in (Steel & König, 2006).

Applications/Insights

Temporal Motivation Theory has the potential to improve the way individuals make decisions and therefore improve productivity and goal achievement across multiple domains.

TMT emphasises the importance of breaking down long-term goals into smaller, short-term goals that provide instant gratification or rewards. This approach involves individuals feeling that tasks are more manageable and urgent, therefore increasing there motivation to complete them. Consider Jason from the case study as an example, splitting his larger future tasks into smaller ones, will not only increase his productivity, but reduce stress ultimately leading to better decision making.

Quiz yourself!

Conclusion

TMT significantly influences decision making by explaining how individuals prioritise their tasks and therefore manage their time based on the values of expectancy, value, delay and impulsiveness. TMT explores why people procrastinate, particularly when tasks or goals are distant or perceived as less rewarding, and how they can improve their approach to make more effective and beneficial decisions.
A primary way TMT influences decision making is through task prioritisation. The theory suggests that individuals are more likely to choose tasks that offer them more immediate and satisfying rewards, and this can lead to less than optimal decisions where short-term gratification is a higher priority than the more beneficial but further away outcomes. Through the understanding of this, individuals and groups can attempt to make a conscious effort to adjust their decision-making process to better suit their long term objectives.

References

Bok, S., Shum, J., & Lee, M. (2024). Temporal Motivation Theory: Punctuality Is a Matter of Seconds. Journal of Marketing Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/02734753241232564

Dishop, C. R. (2019). A simple, dynamic extension of temporal motivation theory. The Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 44(3), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022250x.2019.1666268

Nadolna, K. K., & Beyer, K. (2021). Determinants of the decision-making process in organizations. Procedia Computer Science, 192(1), 2375–2384. Sciencedirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2021.09.006

Noltemeyer, A., Bush, K., Patton, J., & Bergen, D. (2012). The relationship among deficiency needs and growth needs: An empirical investigation of Maslow’s theory. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(9), 1862–1867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.05.021

Ruth Netzer Turgeman, & Pollak, Y. (2023). Using the temporal motivation theory to explain the relation between ADHD and procrastination. Using the Temporal Motivation Theory to Explain the Relation between ADHD and Procrastination, 58(6), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050067.2023.2218540

Shang, C., Moss, A. C., & Chen, A. (2022). The expectancy-value theory: A meta-analysis of its application in physical education. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 12(1).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2022.01.003

Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating Theories of Motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462

Steel, P., Svartdal, F., Thundiyil, T., & Brothen, T. (2018). Examining Procrastination Across Multiple Goal Stages: A Longitudinal Study of Temporal Motivation Theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00327

Wang, Y., & Ruhe, G. (2007). The Cognitive Process of Decision Making. International Journal of Cognitive Informatics and Natural Intelligence, 1(2), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.4018/jcini.2007040105

External links

- Examining Procrastination Across Multiple Goal Stages: A Longitudinal Study of Temporal Motivation Theory

- Temporal Motivation Theory: Formula or Folly?

- What is Temporal Motivation Theory | Explained in 2 min