Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Stockholm syndrome motivation

Stockholm syndrome motivation:
Why do captives bond with their captors?

Overview

Imagine you are a counsellor working with a young woman who has just escaped an abusive relationship. Instead of expressing relief or anger, she speaks fondly of her abuser, defending his actions and downplaying the harm he caused. She says things like, “He only did it because he was stressed,” and, “He cared for me in his own way.” As you listen, you realise she has developed a deep emotional bond with her abuser; a phenomenon known as Stockholm Syndrome. This unexpected attachment, where fear and dependency turn into sympathy and loyalty, challenges your understanding of how trauma can distort a person's perception and emotions.

This book chapter aims to delve deeper into the psychological underpinnings of Stockholm Syndrome. Exploring further:

• What is Stockholm syndrome?
• What psychological mechanisms drive captives to develop emotional bonds with their captors?
• How do social and environmental factors influence these bonds?
• What psychological theories explain Stockholm syndrome?
• Are there any controversies and criticisms surrounding Stockholm syndrome?
• What are the long-term psychological effects of Stockholm syndrome and how can it be treated?

By exploring these questions, we aim to shed light on this intriguing and complex phenomenon, contributing to a better understanding of the human psyche under duress.

What is Stockholm syndrome?

Figure 1. Front view of the former Kreditbanken building at Norrmalmstorg in Stockholm Sweden, where Norrmalmstorg robbery took place in 1973.

Stockholm Syndrome is a psychological phenomenon where individuals who are held captive or subjected to abuse begin to develop a bond, positive feelings, empathy, or even loyalty toward their captors or abusers. This response often emerges as a survival mechanism in situations where the victim perceives that their life is in danger, and they become emotionally dependent on their captor. Stockholm Syndrome can manifest in various forms, including in hostage situations, cases of kidnapping, domestic violence, victims of a cult, prisoners of war, sex workers and abused children. This complex and often misunderstood phenomenon challenges our understanding of human behaviour under extreme stress and coercion.

The term “Stockholm Syndrome” originated from a 1973 bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden, known as the Norrmalmstorg robbery. During this six day ordeal, two armed criminals, Jan-Erik Olsson and Clark Olofsson, took four employees hostage in the bank vault in the Kreditbanken building (see Figure 1). Surprisingly, the hostages began to develop a bond with their captors, even defending them after the event ended. Remarkably, some even resisted rescue efforts, creating a puzzling dynamic that led to the coining of the term by criminologist and psychiatrist Nils Bejerot. The unusual emotional bond between the captives and captors spurred significant interest and research into why victims might develop positive feelings towards their captors, a reaction that seems to contradict natural survival instincts.

Prevalence and diagnosis

The prevalence of Stockholm syndrome is difficult to measure due to the complex nature of the condition and the varying degrees to which it can manifest. However, it is relatively rare with about 8% of hostage victims displaying traits associated with Stockholm Syndrome. Despite its very real and serious nature, Stockholm Syndrome is not officially recognized as a distinct psychological disorder in major diagnostic manuals like the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) or the ICD-11 (International Classification of Diseases). Instead, it is often discussed in the context of trauma-related conditions, such as PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) or as a response to prolonged abuse or captivity.

Due to the lack of formal diagnostic criteria and its overlap with other trauma-related conditions, Stockholm Syndrome is more often described in case studies and anecdotal reports rather than being systematically diagnosed. This contributes to the challenges in understanding its true prevalence and the need for careful assessment in cases where Stockholm Syndrome is suspected.

Signs and symptoms

Due to the difficulty in finding a large enough population of individuals who have experienced Stockholm Syndrome, it is challenging to conduct studies with sufficient validity or a useful sample size. This scarcity of research subjects makes it hard to determine trends in the development of symptoms for this condition. Diagnosis of Stockholm Syndrome involves recognizing a pattern of behaviour rather than identifying a specific set of symptoms. Mental health professionals may look for signs of emotional bonding, loyalty, or affection toward an abuser or captor, alongside the victim's apparent inability to recognize the danger they were in. The condition is often diagnosed retrospectively, after the individual has been removed from the threatening situation, as they may not display overt symptoms while still under the influence of their captor.

Key criteria for Stockholm Syndrome includes:

1. The desire to protect and save their captor; this occurs when the victims begin to try to understand the actions of the captor and even take pity on them,
2. Reasoning with the causes, goals, and perspectives of the captor,
3. Believing in the good and humanity of the captor rather than seeing the harm inflicted nor them as a threat,
4. Relating with and having positive feelings for the captor(s) even after their release,
5. Having negative feelings towards the police, families, and friends who may try to rescue them as being unfair in judgement towards their captor.
6. Placing the interest of their captors above theirs even after their release.
   

Quiz Time! Which of the following is NOT a typical symptom of Stockholm Syndrome? Defending the actions of the captor Developing trust and affection for the captor Experiencing intense hatred and anger towards the captor Difficulty in recognising the danger posed by the captor

Psychological mechanisms

Trauma bonding

- define trauma bonding, discuss how it is similar/different to Stockholm syndrome, discuss it's role in abuse (Olff, 2012)

Survival instincts

- discuss what behaviours victims adopt in order to stay alive and their coping mechanisms: the role of empathy towards captor, discuss denial and rationalisation, discuss Anna Freuds - identification with the captor (help victims regain a sense of control and autonomy) (Nair, 2015).

Perceived kindness

- discuss the role of fear and how it makes victims magnify perceived acts of kindness from abuser - i.e threats of killing which are not carried out, abuser providing basic food and water, signs of compassion or humanity

Case study

Social and environmental factors

Duration of captivity

- discuss if the duration of captivity impacts the development of stockholm syndrome.

Interaction with perpetrator

- discuss the difference between group captives vs isolation, group dynamics, peer pressure to conform, competition and favouritism between captives, power imbalances between victim and abuser, dependency, only source of social and emotional interaction, how exposed victim is to abuser aka how long they spend together vs apart? is captive allowed in house vs basement?

Coping style of victim

- discuss if personal traits impact the development of Stockholm syndrome? does the way a victim copes outside of abuse situations impact the development of stockholm syndrome, example are they problem focused, emotion focused or avoidant (i.e - emotional numbing, praying, denial) does having previous experience with trauma change the development? (Cabrera, 2022).

Case study

Theoretical underpinnings and explanations

Attachment theory

- explain and link John Bowlbys/Mary Ainsworths theories

Cognitive dissonance

- explain and link Leon Festingers theory

Learned helplessness

- explain and link Martin Seligmans theory (classical conditioning)

Biological perspective

- discuss brain processing during trauma, stress response and brain activity to induce empathy/bond

- discuss evolutionary factors (kidnapping in caveman era) (Cantor & Price, 2007).

Critiques and controversies

Validity and ethical considerations

- discuss Dr Allen Wades comments during the 2015 dignity conference - The myth of "Stockholm Syndrome" (and other concepts invented to discredit women victims of violence) after interviewing Kristin Enmark.

- discuss Australian journalist Jess Hills comments during her 2019 treatise on domestic violence See What You Made Me Do

- discuss the lack of formal diagnostic criteria (Namnyak et al., 2007) and chance for oversimplification of complex trauma responses

Alternative explanations

- discuss Battered Person Syndrome

- discuss Appeasement Framework (Bailey et al., 2023).

- discuss Lima Syndrome

Quiz Time! Which of the following is a common challenge in researching Stockholm Syndrome? Difficulty in getting ethical approval for studies from research boards Ethical concerns about studying individuals who have the syndrome Lack of funding for studies Difficulty in finding a large enough population of individuals who have experienced the syndrome

Treatment and recovery

Long-term psychological effects

- discuss ptsd, depression, anxiety, guilt/shame (Demarest, 2009).

- discuss impact on future and current relationships, attachment, issues surrounding trust and healthy boundaries.

- discuss issues with self identity, self worth and overall sense of self.

Therapeutic interventions

- discuss cbt

- discuss Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

- overall statement on importance of support systems/ being supportive as friend or family member

Conclusion

Conclude by providing a quick summary for each focus question

• What is Stockholm syndrome?
• What psychological mechanisms drive captives to develop emotional bonds with their captors?
• How do social and environmental factors influence these bonds?
• What psychological theories explain Stockholm syndrome?
• Are there any controversies and criticisms surrounding Stockholm syndrome?
• What are the long-term psychological effects of Stockholm syndrome and how can it be treated?

See also

• Attachment theory (Book chapter, 2024)
• Cognitive behaviour therapy for emotional abuse (Book chapter, 2021)
• Domestic violence motivation (Book chapter, 2021)
• Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion (Book chapter, 2024)
• Stockholm syndrome (Wikipedia)
• Traumatic bonding (Wikipedia)

References

Bailey, R., Dugard, J., Smith, S. F., & Porges, S. W. (2023). Appeasement: replacing Stockholm syndrome as a definition of a survival strategy. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2022.2161038]

Burton, N. (2012). What underlies Stockholm syndrome? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hideand-seek/201203/what-underlies-stockholm-syndrome

Cantor, C., & Price, J. (2007). Traumatic entrapment, appeasement and complex post-traumatic stress disorder: Evolutionary perspectives of hostage reactions, domestic abuse and the Stockholm syndrome. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41(5), 377–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/00048670701261178

Cabrera, K. (2022). Susceptibility and the Stockholm syndrome. Honors Undergraduate Thesis. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2371&context=honorstheses

Carver, J. M. (2014). "Love and Stockholm syndrome: The mystery of loving an abuser." Counselling Resource. http://counsellingresource.com/therapy/self-help/stockholm/

Demarest, R. A. (2009). The relationship between Stockholm syndrome and post-traumatic stress disorder in battered women. Inquiries Journal, 1(11). http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/35/the-relationship-between-stockholm-syndrome-and-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-in-battered-women

Graham, D. L. R., Rawlings, E. I., Ihms, K., Latimer, D., Foliano, J., Thompson, A., Suttman, K., Farrington, M., & Hacker, R. (1995). A scale for identifying Stockholm syndrome reactions in young dating women: Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Violence and Victims, 10(1), 3–22. DOI: 10.1891/0886-6708.10.1.3.

Kackar, A., & Juneja, A. (2022). Psychology in pathology: Stockholm syndrome. 9. https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2204130.pdf

McLaughlin, C. M. (2015). "Fear or love: Examining Stockholm syndrome in the Elizabeth Smart kidnapping case." Salem, MA: Salem State University. https://digitalrepository.salemstate.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13013/586/auto_convert.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y

Moeed, H., Naveed, M., Usama, M., & Hammad, M. (2024). Stockholm syndrome. https://biologicaltimes.com/wp-content/uploads/journal/published_paper/volume-3/issue-6/BT_2024_8001053.pdf

Nair, M. S. (2015). Stockholm syndrome -A self delusive survival strategy. "International Journal of Advanced Research", 385-388. https://www.journalijar.com/uploads/309_IJAR-7677.pdf

Namnyak, M., Tufton, N., Szekely, R., Toal, M., Worboys, S., & Sampson, E. L. (2007). “Stockholm syndrome”: psychiatric diagnosis or urban myth?. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 0(0), 071120024945001 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01112.x

Olff, M. (2012). Bonding after trauma: On the role of social support and the oxytocin system in traumatic stress. "European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 3"(1), 18597. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.18597

External links

• Fear or love: Examining stockholm syndrome in the Elizabeth Smart kidnapping case (Salem State University)
• Rethinking stockholm syndrome (Youtube)
• Stockholm syndrome (Britannica)
• Why didn't Jaycee Lee Dugard escape, reach out, scream for help? (CBS News)