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Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Solitary confinement

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Solitary confinement:
What are its motivational and emotional processes and impacts?
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Overview

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Solitary Confinement Scenario
 
Figure 1. Officer standing in a solitary confinement cell
You are arrested supposedly in connection with a terrible crime.You are placed into custody in a dark room measuring 2mx3m by yourself with no natural light and only a small hole in the door, it has a small bed and a sink.You are told that you will be kept in this room 24 hours per day with no contact with the outside world until you tell them what they want to know.

Solitary confinement in a small dark cell, uses sensory deprivation and social isolation to break the will of those unfortunate enough to be in it. by inducing learned helplessness. It is done mainly to punish, extract information, torture and/ or to supervise closely.

This chapter examines the processes and impacts of solitary confinement on both the motivation and emotion(s) of those subjected to it. It refers to research and the knowledge from key psychological theories including; the self determination theory , mini theories basic needs theory (BNT) and relationship motivation theory (RMT) as well as Maslow's hierarchy of needs pyramid.

To maximise the ease and engagement in learning the chapter uses case studies, links to youtube videos and some quick quizzes. This chapter does not include the processes or impacts of physical abuse which is also sometimes used in conjunction with solitary confinement.

Focus questions:

  • What psychological processes are involved in solitary confinement?
  • What are the short- and longer-term impacts on motivation?
  • What are the short- and longer-term impacts on emotion?

Processes of solitary confinement

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Induce learned helplessness and reduce self efficacy (Wortman & Brehm, 1975) (Hiroto & Seligman, 1975)

- Punishment to for a crime (Haney, 2003)

- debilitate and create dependency and extract information (CIA, 2023)

- torture to destroy the victim’s sense of privacy, intimacy, trust of others and security, as well as one’s sense of self and how one relates to one’s surroundings (Physicians for Human Rights, 2005) or as a form of psychological torture often in tandem with sleep deprivation (Reyes, 2007)

- political message To send a message to those who we don’t like

- medical watch cells MHU Talk abt suicide watch and the intended effect vs actual effect (Cho & Naples-Mitchell, 2021) (Cassese, 1991)

- as a positive to deescalate bad situations (Laws, 2021), enlightenment or religious reason

In Buddhism solitary confinement is a right of passage for certain monks and they use it to increase mindfulness and say it improves compassion and empathy for others.

 
Figure 2. Activist in London carries a sign declaring 'I stand with Julian.' 2023

Case study on Julian Assange

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Julian Assange

winner of world journalism awards confined and then decreased in well being

talk about fears of people of him being extradited to the US

Quiz

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little revision quiz here

Psychological perspectives

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To understand the interaction between solitary confinement's processes reduce self efficacy and increasing learned helplessness and its impacts- stopping people from meeting their physiological and psychological needs- we must look at what we know those needs to be through several psychological perspectives.

Maslow's pyramid of needs

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Figure 3. Maslow's hierarchy of needs model

Explain how solitary confinement relates to Maslows theory and insert pic here of the pyramid (Visser, 2020)

Social determination theory and mini theories

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explain how solitary confinement relates to Social determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

explain how solitary confinement relates to BNT mini theory (Reeve, 2012)

explain how solitary confinement relates to RMT mini theory (Deci & Ryan 2014)

 
Figure 4. Nelson Mandela voting for the first time 1994

Case study on Nelson Mandela

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Nelson Mandela

First president of SA 1994 to 1999

Anti-apartied activist etc

Jailed in total 27 years released in 1990

Robben island he was confined to a very small cell subject to hard labour and placed in solitary on various occasions

talk about how he used his time to complete studies and gain political influence

Quiz

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little revision quiz here

Impacts of solitary confinement

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Having covered both the processes and purpose of solitary confinement and the psychological theories which help to understand the potential impacts. The impacts can now be examined and discussed. The impacts are split between motivation and emotion to try and keep things neater.

Motivation

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explain these points with reference to research and theory as listed above

- 'crushing will to live' according to John McCain (Gawande, 2009) increased suicide (Brinkley-Rubinstein, et al., 2019)

- social avoidence in mice (Blanco-Suarez, 2017) (Matthews, et al., 2016) and social intolerance/ incapability (Grassian, 2006)

- personality disintegration (Physicians for Human Rights, 2005)

- cognitive impairment to concentration social cue detetion and memory (Hresko, 2006) (Scientific American, 2018)

- cognitive change (Coppola,2019) (Supreme court of the United States, 2016) (Vrca, et al., 1996)

when in solitary all these needs go un met thus breaking down and de-energising the person and making them feel less Motivation is the needs wants and interest and desires that energise and direct our behaviour

In terms of motivationally it is crushing on the will to live for the individual and self-harm and suicide rates amongst those in of having been in SC experience way more SH and suicide and recidivism due to the extreme nature of the confinement have difficulties readjusting to normal life

Emotion

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explain these points with reference to research and theory as listed above

- physical brain changes similar to traumatic brain injury (Vrca, et al., 1996) smaller hippo larger amygdala (Lobel, & Akil, 2018) (Blanco-Suarez, 2019)

- PTSD and neurotransmitters changes (Costanzo, & Gerrity, 2009) (Witte, 2007)

- Emotionally deregulating and can cause or worsen mental health conditions (CIA, 2023) (Hresko, 2006) (Haney, 2003)

- hard to return to return to normal / permanent damage (Physicians for Human Rights, 2005) (Gawande, 2009) (Coppola, 2019)

Case study on Chelsea Manning

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Chelsea Manning

Leaked classified US info on Iraq and Afghanistan which showed the US acted improperly

Published on wiki leaks

Charged on national security charges sentenced to 35years July 2010 April 2011 in solitary at Quantico Virginia under prevention of injury status so no social vists and no contact

many suicide attempts notably 2016

This interview→ clip went viral worldwide showing how Chelsea has become accustomed to her own silence

Quiz

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little revision quiz here on the motivational impacts and question regarding Chelsea

Learning features

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Interactive learning features help to bring online book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

Scenarios
  • Scenarios or case studies describe applied/real-world examples of concepts in action
  • Case studies can be real or fictional
  • A case study could be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
  • It is often helpful to present case studies using feature boxes.

Feature boxes
  • Important content can be highlighted in a feature box. But don't overuse feature boxes, otherwise they lose their effect.
  • Consider using feature boxes for:
    • Scenarios, case studies, or examples
    • Focus questions
    • Tips
    • Quiz questions
    • Take-home messages
Links

Link

Tables
  • Use to organise and summarise information
  • As with figures, tables should be captioned
  • Refer to each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
  • Example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted

Table 1. Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table and its Relevant to the Text - Johari Window Model

Known to self Not known to self
Known to others Open area Blind spot
Not known to others Hidden area Unknown
Quizzes
  • Using one or two review questions per major section is usually better than a long quiz at the end
  • Quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia
  • Don't make quizzes too hard
  • Different types of quiz questions are possible; see Quiz

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit":

1 Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:

True
False

2 Long quizzes are a good idea:

True
False


Conclusion

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  • Summarise the main processes of solitary confinement. the key take home messages.
  • Talk about the importance of the psychological theories and how solitary effectively stops them from working.
  • Demonstrated by case studies
  • Restate the devastating impacts that solitary confinement has on people psychologically and physically.
  • Reflect on Manning youtube clip illustrating this point
  • Reinforce the importance of this issue to the readers

See also

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References

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Brinkley-Rubinstein, L., Sivaraman, J., Rosen, D. L., Cloud, D. H., Junker, G., Proescholdbell, S., Shanahan, M. E., & Ranapurwala, S. I. (2019). Association of restrictive housing during incarceration with mortality after release. JAMA Network Open, 2(10). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.12516

Cho, E., & Naples-Mitchell, J. (2021). Solitary Confinement and Segregation Without Medical Justification. In Behind Closed Doors Abuse and Retaliation Against Hunger Strikers in U.S. Immigration Detention (1st ed., pp. 40–44). essay, American Civil Liberties Union And Physicians for Human Rights.

Coppola, F. (2019). The brain in solitude: an (other) eighth amendment challenge to solitary confinement. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 6(1), 184–225. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsz014

Costanzo, M. A., & Gerrity, E. (2009). The effects and effectiveness of using torture as an interrogation device: Using research to inform the policy debate. Social Issues and Policy Review, 3(1), 179–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2009.01014.x

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2014). Autonomy and need satisfaction in close relationships: Relationships motivation theory. Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships, 1(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6_3

Gawande, A. (2009, March 23). Is long-term solitary confinement torture?. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/03/30/hellhole

Grassian, S. (2006). Psychiatric Effects of Solitary Confinement. Washington University Journal of Law and Policy, 22(1), 327–380. https://doi.org/https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1362&context=law_journal_law_policy

Haney, C. (2003). Mental health issues in long-term solitary and “Supermax” confinement. Crime & Delinquency, 49(1), 124–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128702239239

Health Consequences of Psychological Torture. (2005). In Break them Down, Systematic Use of Psychological Torture by US Forces (pp. 48–72). essay, Physicians for Human Rights .

Hiroto, D. S., & Seligman, M. E. (1975). Generality of learned helplessness in man. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(2), 311–327. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076270

Hresko, T. (2006). In the cellars of the hollow men: Use of solitary confinement in U.S. prisons and its implications under international laws against torture. Pace International Law Review, 18(1), 11–13. https://doi.org/10.58948/2331-3536.1071

Laws, B. (2021). Segregation Seekers: an Alternative Perspective on the Solitary Confinement Debate. British Journal of Criminology, 61(6). https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azab032

Lobel, J., & Akil, H. (2018). Law & neuroscience: The case of solitary confinement. Daedalus, 147(4), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_00520

Matthews, G. A., Nieh, E. H., Vander Weele, C. M., Halbert, S. A., Pradhan, R. V., Yosafat, A. S., Glober, G. F., Izadmehr, E. M., Thomas, R. E., Lacy, G. D., Wildes, C. P., Ungless, M. A., & Tye, K. M. (2016). Dorsal raphe dopamine neurons represent the experience of social isolation. Cell, 164(4), 617–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.12.040

Reyes, H. (2007) ‘The worst scars are in The mind: Psychological torture’, International Review of the Red Cross, 89(867), pp. 591–617. doi:10.1017/s1816383107001300.

Scientific American. (2013, March). Solitary confinement is cruel and ineffective. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/solitary-confinement-cruel-ineffective-unusual/

Supreme Court of the United Sates, “Brief of Medical and Other Scientific and Health-Related Professionals as Amici Curiae in Support of Respondents and Affirmance,” 25

Vrca, A., Bozikov, V., Brzović, Z., Fuchs, R., & Malinar, M. (1996). Visual evoked potentials in relation to factors of imprisonment in detention camps. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 109(3), 114–117. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01369669

Wortman, C. B., & Brehm, J. W. (1975). Responses to uncontrollable outcomes: An integration of reactance theory and the learned helplessness model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 8, 277–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60253-1

Witte, K. (2007). Fear as motivator, fear as inhibitor. Handbook of Communication and Emotion, 423–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012057770-5/50018-7

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