Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Remote work and well-being

Remote work and well-being:
How does remote work influence employee well-being?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Case study Sarah, a 35-year-old marketing manager, transitioned to full-time remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the shift, she worked in a vibrant office environment, surrounded by colleagues, with a clear separation between her work and personal life. The sudden change to remote work presented both opportunities and challenges for Sarah’s psychological well-being. Six months into remote work, Sarah began experiencing symptoms of anxiety, difficulty concentrating, and feelings of isolation. Despite enjoying the flexibility of working from home, she noticed a decline in her overall happiness and productivity. Sarah sought help from a psychologist to address these issues.

The video link below is based off TED to explore factor of working remotely and well-being with approaches similar to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and SDT covered later in this chapter. Click Here

Figure 1. Image of a man working from home whilst managing his personal life

Remote work has increasingly become a standard mode of employment, offering flexibility and convenience for both employees and employers. This shift has accelerated due to technological advancements and, more recently, the global COVID-19 pandemic, which forced many businesses to adapt to a remote or hybrid work model. While remote work presents numerous benefits, such as reduced commuting time, a better work-life balance, and the ability to work from virtually anywhere, it also introduces challenges that can impact well-being. Remote work has the potential to improve employee well-being through greater flexibility and autonomy, but it also poses challenges related to isolation, work-life balance, and access to resources. The impact on well-being largely depends on how well employees can manage these challenges and how effectively organisations support their remote workforce.

Focus questions How does Sarah’s experience with blurred boundaries between work and personal life reflect common challenges in remote work? How might organizations foster a sense of community and connection among remote employees? What long-term psychological impacts might prolonged remote work have on employees, and how can they be addressed?

What is working remotely?

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, remote work was typically voluntary, with organisations carefully planning procedures (Mayo et al., 2009). However, the pandemic's abrupt and mandatory shift to remote work left many HR departments unprepared, lacking policies and experience in managing remote employees. Two key challenges during this transition were: 1) uncertainty about the crisis's severity, duration, and economic impact, and 2) isolation from social distancing and remote work. This situation disrupted basic human needs for autonomy and belongingness (Becker et al., 2022)

Modern technology has significantly enhanced workplace competitiveness by facilitating seamless global communication and enabling remote work. As Stacey Epstein, CEO of Zinc, notes, today’s workforce is increasingly mobile, collaborative, and diverse, presenting unique challenges in staying connected (Flores, 2019). Remote work allows employees to perform their duties from home or other convenient locations using information and communication technologies, offering flexibility and increased productivity (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007). Many large corporations have adopted this model, benefiting from reduced commuting costs and higher output; a study by Global Workplace Analytics found that over two-thirds of employers report increased productivity among telecommuters (Flores, 2019).

However, remote work also has downsides, notably the potential for employee isolation. The lack of face-to-face interactions can lead to feelings of loneliness and social disconnection among remote workers (Busch, Nash & Bell, 2011).

The rapid shift to remote work due to COVID-19 posed significant challenges for organisations and employees. This change exacerbated existing issues like loneliness, anxiety, and reduced well-being among employees, as shown in various studies (Becker et al., 2022). Additionally, research indicated that many employees faced increased job insecurity and a loss of work meaning during the pandemic's early months (Brooks et al., 2020).

Positive and negative influences of working remotely

Positive influences	Negative Influences
Work-life balance (Flexibility/Time spent with Family) Remote work often allows employees to set their own schedules, helping them balance professional and personal responsibilites more effectively. This flexibility can reduce stress related to commuting and rigid work hours. Being at home can lead to more time spent with family, which can improve emoptional well-being.	Social isolation Remote work can lead to feelings of loneliness and isolation due to the reduces face-to-face interaction with colleagues. this can negatively impact mental health, especially for extroverts or htose who thrive on social connections.
Reduced Commuting (Tim/Energy and Monetary savings) Eliminating the daily commute can save time and reduce the stress accociated with traffic, long travel times, or crowded public transport. This can effectively reduce an individual's spending on fuel and parking.	Blurring of work-life boundaries (over working) The lack of a clear distinction between work and personal life can lead to longer working hours and difficulty "switching off" from work, resulting in burnout and stress. Work-related tasks and thoughts can spill over into personal time, reducing the quality of downtime.
Health benefits Without the need to commute, some employees find more time for exercise and healthy eating contributing to better physical health. The reduced pressure of being physically present in an office can lessen anxiety, particularly for those who find office environments stressful.	Reduced acces to support Remote workers may find it harder to collaborate or get immediate feedback from colleagues and managers, potentially leading to feelings of isolations or being out of the loop. Some remote workers may gfeel overlooked for pormotions or key projects, impacting their professional developments and job satisfaction.
	Physical health concerns Without the natural movement that comes with commuting or walking around and office, remote workers may experience a more sedentary lifestyle, leading to potential health issues like weight gain or back problems. Home office setups might not always be ergonomically sound, potentially leading to muscular or skeletal problems.

Important key concepts as a proposed model

Work-life balance

• Work-life balance is the balance between personal life and professional responsibilities, ensuring that neither aspect is neglected at the expense of the other. Achieving this balance is crucial for several reasons. A balanced approach to work and life helps reduce stress levels, preventing burnout and maintaining mental health. Constant work pressure without adequate downtime can lead to chronic stress, anxiety, depression and lessen motivation (Charalampous, Grant, Tramontano and Michailidis, 2018).Time spent with family, friends, and loved ones strengthens relationships and provides a support system that is essential for emotional well-being. A good work-life balance can improve interactions with colleagues, leading to a more positive and cooperative work environment (Charalampous, Grant, Tramontano and Michailidis, 2018).

Emotional Isolation

• Remote work, while offering flexibility and convenience, can significantly impact social connections and potentially lead to feelings of isolation. In a traditional office setting, employees interact face-to-face daily, building relationships through casual conversations, teamwork, and shared experiences (Becker et al., 2022). Remote work limits these interactions, making it harder to form and maintain close connections. Some negative influences can include, reduced face-to-face interactions, isolation from team dynamics, decreased opportunities for socialising, increased loneliness and limited exposure to diverse perspectives (Becker, Belkin, Tuskey and Conroy, 2022).

Job Control

• Remote work significantly impacts autonomy and flexibility, often enhancing both in ways that can be beneficial for employees and organisations alike, with factors such as better control over work environment, flexible schedule, work-life balancing enhancements, increase responsibility and accountability, etc… There are also potential challenges which can arise with overworking and boundaries and lack of social support (Felstead and Henseke, 2017).

Work-related lonelines

• Work-related loneliness refers to the feelings of isolation, disconnection, or lack of social support that employees experience in the workplace, particularly in remote or flexible work environments. This phenomenon can occur when employees lack meaningful interactions with colleagues or have limited opportunities for social engagement, which can impact their overall well-being and job satisfaction (Becker et al., 2022).

Theories

Self-determination theory

A significant portion of adults globally work in organisations with varying job conditions. While some employees enjoy fulfilling and well-compensated roles, others endure demanding and unsatisfactory jobs that leave them looking forward to time away from work. Profitability is a basic expectation for organisations, but highly effective organisations go beyond mere profits, benefiting all stakeholders, including employees and consumers. These organisations foster high-quality performance and employee well-being, linking employee motivation and wellness to long-term organisational success.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) has long explored the relationship between motivation, performance, and wellness in organisations. It emphasises the importance of creating workplace conditions that support employee autonomy, which leads to higher satisfaction and thriving (Deci, Olafsen and Ryan, 2017). By highlighting factors like managerial styles and pay structures that promote autonomy and competence, SDT provides a framework for enhancing employee engagement and fostering both individual and organisational development.

SDT is a broad theory of human motivation that has been effectively utilised in various fields, including parenting, education, healthcare, sports and physical activity, psychotherapy, virtual environments, and work motivation and management (Deci, Olafsen & Ryan, 2017). SDT posits that both employee performance and well-being are influenced by the nature of their motivation for job-related activities. The theory distinguishes between different types of motivation, asserting that each type has unique catalysts, associated factors, and outcomes.

Figure 2: SDT simplified to explore its common traits

Autonomous motivation

Autonomous motivation refers to individuals engaging in activities willingly and with a sense of choice, often associated with intrinsic motivation. In a workplace context, extrinsically motivated tasks can also become autonomously motivated if certain conditions are met—specifically, when employees comprehend the significance of their work, experience a sense of ownership and autonomy, and receive clear feedback and support (Deci, Olafsen and Ryan, 2017). This can lead to enhanced motivation, resulting in better performance, learning, and adjustment. In contrast, when motivation is driven by external controls, such as contingent rewards or power dynamics, it may restrict employees' efforts, produce short-term benefits, and adversely affect future performance and work engagement (Deci, Olafsen and Ryan, 2017).

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is a specific type of autonomous motivation driven by the enjoyment and interest derived from the activity itself. This is commonly observed in children during play, as well as in adults through hobbies and sports, and it plays a crucial role in the workplace by enhancing performance quality and overall well-being (Deci, Olafsen and Ryan, 2017).

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), a key component of SDT developed by Deci and Ryan in 1980, emphasises that intrinsic and extrinsic incentives are not merely additive. CET research demonstrates that rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation by affecting individuals' perceptions of their autonomy and competence, ultimately influencing both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Thus, the distinction between autonomous and controlled motivation within SDT explains significant variability in research outcomes across various domains (Deci, Olafsen and Ryan, 2017).

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsically motivated behavior involves engaging in activities to achieve an outcome that is separate from the activity itself, whether that outcome is tangible or intangible. Instead of viewing all extrinsic motivation as negative, SDT acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can produce different effects on intrinsic motivation, leading to either enhancements or reductions (Deci, Olafsen and Ryan, 2017). SDT categorises various forms of extrinsic motivation along a continuum of autonomy, ranging from least to most autonomous:

Continuum of Autonomy
External Regulation: Individuals act based on external controls, such as rewards or threats, which often diminishes their autonomous motivation and well-being.
Introjected Regulation: Individuals are driven by a desire for approval or fear of disapproval, with their behavior influenced by self-esteem contingent on external validation.
Identified Regulation: Individuals recognise and accept the value of their roles, resulting in more autonomous self-regulation.
Integrated Regulation: Individuals harmonise their various identifications, leading to purposeful engagement without internal conflict.
Intrinsic Motivation: The most autonomous form of motivation, where individuals engage in activities purely for the enjoyment and interest they provide.

These forms of motivation exist along a continuum of autonomy. Research indicates a simple pattern in motivation types, suggesting that those that are closer together on the continuum tend to be more highly correlated (Deci, Olafsen and Ryan, 2017). Although there is ongoing debate about how best to model these motivations, studies have consistently shown that more autonomous forms of motivation are generally linked to greater persistence, improved performance quality, and enhanced well-being, and they are associated with different work conditions and leadership styles.

Job demands-control model

Karasek's (1979) job demands-control model is a well-regarded framework for understanding occupational stress, suggesting that having control can lessen the impact of job demands on strain and improve job satisfaction by allowing employees to tackle challenging tasks and develop new skills (Karasek, 1979). However, research findings regarding this model have shown inconsistency, mainly due to differences in how demands, control, and strain are assessed, a scarcity of longitudinal studies, and the model's neglect of individual worker characteristics (Kain and Jex, 2010). Researchers have tried to enhance the model by integrating additional elements such as resources, self-efficacy, active coping, and social support (Kain and Jex, 2010). Despite these modifications, inconsistencies persist. To further reduce these issues, it is advised to adopt longitudinal designs and employ a combination of objective and subjective measures, increase sample sizes, and carefully align the types of demands and control (Kain and Jex, 2010).

Quiz

Question: How does extrinsic motivation differ from intrinsic motivation?

	Extrinsic motivation is always negative
	Intrinsic motivation comes from within, while extrinsic motivation involves external factors
	Intrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards, while extrinsic motivation is driven by the enjoyment of the task itself.
	There is no difference; they are interchangeable

Conclusion

The transition to remote work has profoundly transformed the modern workplace, presenting both significant benefits and notable challenges for employee well-being. While remote work fosters flexibility, improved work-life balance, and reduced commuting stress, it also heightens risks of isolation, blurred boundaries between professional and personal life, and diminished access to resources. As seen in Sarah's case, the psychological impacts of these challenges can lead to anxiety and reduced productivity, emphasising the need for effective organisational support systems.

Theories such as SDT and the Job Demands-Control model offer valuable insights into how motivation and job characteristics influence well-being in remote work settings. By prioritising employee autonomy, fostering connections among remote teams, and carefully managing work demands, organisations can cultivate a supportive environment that enhances motivation and overall job satisfaction. To fully harness the potential of remote work while addressing its inherent challenges, organisations must adopt evidence-based strategies and continuously evaluate their approaches to ensure the well-being of their workforce. This multifaceted approach will not only benefit individual employees but also contribute to long-term organisational success in an increasingly remote work landscape.

See also

• Well-being and health behaviours (Book chapter, 2013)
• Health and emotion (Book chapter, 2013)
• Remote work (Wikipedia)
• Remote work and stress (Book chapter,2024)

References

Becker, W., Belkin, L.Y.B., Tuskey, S. and Conroy, S. (2022). Surviving remotely: How job control and loneliness during a forced shift to remote work impacted employee work behaviors and well-being. Human Resource Management, 61(4), pp.449–464. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.22102.

Charalampous, M., Grant, C. A., Tramontano, C. and Michailidis, E. (2018) ‘Systematically reviewing remote e-workers’ wellbeing at work: a multidimensional approach’, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28(1), 53–73

Brooks, S.K., Webster, R.K., Smith, L.E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N. and Rubin, G.J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395, pp.912–920.

Busch, E., Nash, J. and Bell, B.S. (2011). Remote Work: An Examination of Current Trends and Emerging Issues Center or Advance Human Resource Studies. Cornell University.

Deci, E.L., Olafsen, A.H. and Ryan, R.M. (2017). Self-Determination Theory in Work Organizations: The State of a Science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior , 4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113108.

Deci, E.L. and Ryan , R.M. (1980). The Empirical Exploration of Intrinsic Motivational Processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 13, pp.39–80. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60130-6.

Flores, M.F. (2019). Understanding The Challenges Of Remote Working And It’s Impact To Workers. International Journal of Business Marketing and Management, 4(11), pp.40–44.

Gajendran, R. and Harrison, D. (2007). The Good, the Bad, and the Unknown about Telecommuting: Meta-analysis of Psychological Mediators and Individual Consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(6), pp.1524–1541.

Kain, J. and Jex, S. (2010). Karasek’s (1979) Job demands-control model: a Summary of Current Issues and Recommendations for Future Research. New Developments in Theoretical and Conceptual Approaches to Job Stress.

Karasek , R.A. (1979). Job Demands, Job Decision Latitude, and Mental Strain: Implications for Job Redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, pp.285–308. doi:https://doi.org/doi.org/10.2307/2392498.

Mayo, M., Pastor, J.C., Gomez-Mejia, L. and Cruz, C. (2009). Why some firms adopt telecommuting while others do not: A contingency perspective. Human Resource Management, 48, pp.917–939.

External links

• Mixed Impacts of working remotly(Harvard business review)
• Health impacts on remote work(Forbes news letter)