Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Machiavellianism and power motivation

Machiavellianism and power motivation:
How does Machiavellian influence power seeking motivations?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Figure 1. Explanation of the Dark Triad traits, Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Machiavellian. David has been hard at work on an important project for work for months and the big presentation is this Friday. But unfortunately, David has become very ill and can not come in to work. One of his fellow team members, Anastasia, offers to host the presentation for him. She says that she knows the project, and has promised to make sure he gets the credit. David sighs in relief and he hands over his project to Anastasia. Monday comes around, and David is back at work, he excitedly asks Anastasia how his project went on the Friday meeting. He is met with Anastasia's scorn, "What are you talking about? I presented two projects that I had worked on. You didn't submit anything." David slowly discovers that Anastasia has taken credit for all his work, and any efforts he makes to explain his situation to other workers fail, as Anastasia has already spoken to them. Feelings of betrayal and isolation rush through David. Any effort he makes to talk to Anastasia is met with dismissal, and she orders him to leave her alone. He is also sharply reprimanded by his bosses for not submitting anything for the big presentation, and now he has a permanent mark against him in his career. David has just met someone with strong Machiavellian traits (see Figure 1), who doesn't care who she hurts to get her way. This type of behavior can, and does, create toxic work environments, not just for characters like David but for entire workplaces or social spaces.

Throughout life, the average person will have come across people who seem to blend into any group they find themselves in with ease.(Pandey et al., 1987). They take on new persona if that is what it takes to get in with the dominant group. At first glance, they may seem warm and welcoming but as time goes on cracks in their charming veneer reveal a withdrawn and cold person (Nilupulee Liyanagamage & Fernando, 2023).

Machiavellianism is one of the three subcategories of a collection of theories called 'the dark triad'. Machiavellianism is defined as manipulative, lacking empathy, and seeking dominance. The other two categories are Narcissism, with some of the defining traits being grandiosity, entitlement, superiority, and Psychopathy; some of the defining traits being selfishness, and self-entitlement (Schattke & Marion-Jetten, 2021).

Since interacting with others is part of human experience, a great deal of research has been dedicated to the examination and exploration of Machiavellianism, an asocial societal chameleon, and their power motivations.

This chapter educates and enlightens readers on the complexities of the Machiavellian mindset and the power motivations that come from it. Drawing upon psychological sciences to explore some of the key aspects of what makes high Machiavellian individuals including a brief history, their mindset and defining characteristics, this chapter hopes to answer some of the key questions of psychology and a question many ask themselves after Machiavellian individuals use them: "Why did/do they do that?"

Key points: Machiavellianism: What it is and how it functions within the Dark Triad. Power-seeking motivations: The driving forces behind Machiavellian behavior and their emotional consequences

Focus questions: How does Machiavellianism influence the ways we seek power? How does Machiavellianism manifest in everyday situations and what can be learnt about power-seeking motivations? In what ways does Machiavellianism align with theories of motivation? How do Machiavellian motivations shape the way of power-seeking and how do they affect the relationships around us?

A brief history of the term Machiavellianism

Figure 2. Portrait of Niccolò Machiavelli by Santi di Tito, who inspired the creation of the Machiavellian theory

Machiavellianism is named after Niccoló Machiavelli, who was a famous diplomat and political theorist (See Figure 2). In 1532 he published a book called The Prince, which advised kings and lords to secure power through carefully planned, and often brutal, deeds; such deeds included the public execution of rivals. He famously stated: "It is better to be feared than to be loved."

Machiavellianism, as known today, was developed by Christie and Geis (1970) and is measured through MACH-IV. The term High Machs is the most common term used to describe people with high Machiavellian traits and will be used in this book chapter for clarity. The common cultural understanding of Machiavellianism of today is that Machiavellian individuals are distrustful, arrogant, and intensely manipulative (McHoskey, 1999).

Theoretical underpinnings

A brief explanation and history of the psychological theories that are used throughout this book chapter in combination with the exploration of Machiavellian and power motivations.

Needs theory

McClelland’s Three Needs Theory, 1961 is a motivational goal-striving theory that argues the average person is motivated by three individual preferences: achievement, affiliation, and power. The need for affiliation is described as a need for approval, acceptance and security in interpersonal relationships. Need for achievement is a desire to do well and relate to a standard of excellence. The need for power is described as the need to have impact, control, and/or influence over others. The strive for power often centers on a need for dominance, reputation, status or position, which is why this theory relates towards Machiavellianism and power motivation.

McClelland's three needs	An example
Achievement	Doing well in a challenging assignment
Affiliation	Relaxing and enjoying time with close friends
Power	Being put into a leadership position

Based on Reeve, J. (2018).

McClelland argued that these three types of motivation regardless of age, sex, or culture, and an individual's preference for each is dependent on life experience and cultural opinion. This theory is commonly taught in managerial and business organizational sectors.

Self-determination theory

Ryan and Deci, Self-determination theory, 2000 is a broad motivational theory that studies the extrinsic and intrinsic motivations of goal completion. Extrinsic motivation is facilitated by external rewards and punishers. Intrinsic motivation can be defined as the inherent desire to engage in the individual's interests and to develop and improve one's skill at it. Extrinsic motivations, such as money, power, and fame, are continuously described as goals for highly Machiavellian individuals, (McHoskey, 1999), which is why this theory is relevant.

Motivational type	An example
Extrinsic	Studying so they will do well on a test because they are rewarded money
Intrinsic	Studying because the topic interests them

Based on Reeve, J. (2018).

Ryan and Deci (2000) would add that people thrive, and show their intrinsic motivations when their psychological needs of; autonomy, competence and relatedness are met. Need for autonomy is descried as a need to experience self-direction and personal choice. Competence is described as need to do and show one's skills. Relatedness is described as the need to establish close emotional bonds with others. The current psychological literature on Machiavellianism has frequently states that High Machs do not care for intrinsic goals and prioritise extrinsic goals, (Schattke & Marion-Jetten, 2021) which is why this theory was selected for this chapter,

Self-determination needs	An example
Autonomy	Deciding what to do for the day and then doing it
Competence	Doing a hobby of choice and doing well
Relatedness	Being a part of a group that likes each other

Based on Reeve, J. (2018).

The Machiavellian Mindset

Most research on The Dark Triad has focused on the workplace, and most notable has studied narcissism and psychopathy. This could be because these traits have very obvious behavioural patterns. But Machiavellianism often flies under the radar, and even subordinates tend to fail to recognise highly Machiavellian-rated bosses (Nilupulee Liyanagamage & Fernando, 2023; Pilch, 2008). This could be because the Machiavellian boss or co-worker employs strategies to hide their ambition, after all, what good manipulator admits they are one?

Case study Anastasia's mind Anastasia thinks that she doesn't need friends as they will only disappoint her. She knows she's good at her job, and she's happy with her choice of job, but not so happy with her co-workers as they are all idiots in her mind. She says she deserves a raise, her boss's job, and a new Mustang. Anastasia has a High Mach mindset.

Extending upon the point of the case study, Anastasia places great importance on herself. She is selfish, arrogant, and isolated. These are all behaviour patterns of high in Machiavellian individuals, as discovered by Kessler et al (2010). She emphasises external rewards like fast cars and money and does not pay attention to anything internal, like friends for example. An external goal emphasis occurs with High Machs, as many of them don't care about intrinsic rewards (Maria Zaman and Shazia Qayyum, 2020).

Power and control: Machiavellian tactics

How does Machiavellianism influence power-seeking?

Machiavellian individuals, especially experienced ones, have a large arsenal of tools and tactics that can be used to attain power. In a study conducted by Kessler et al. (2010), they defined Machiavellianism in terms of three factors: maintaining power, harsh management tactics, and manipulative behaviors. They used the MACH-IV to gauge an individual's Machiavellianism. The results of the study showed that the higher an individual's manipulative behavior, the more likely they were to have engaged in harsh management tactics, such as publicly yelling at an employee and reported low on factors such as warmth and truth-worthiness. The key finding of this research shows that high Machiavellian individuals employ harsh and cruel tactics to keep their power, at the cost of others' well being.

Looping back to self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), the High Machs generally employ methods like public shaming, exerting their own autonomy at the cost of the subordinates. When this method is used it is at the cost of the employee's feelings of competence, and as a by-product, their feelings of affiliation within the organisation.

Ekizler and Bolelli (2020), in a literature review, examined the most commonly used methods of power used by manipulative personalities. They found that high Machiavellian bosses will often use both impersonal, such as the threat of being fired, and personal coercion tactics, such as alienation, to get the results that they wanted. These findings are also supported by previous research by Wisse and Sleebos (2016) about bosses who use abusive supervision, where Machiavellian bosses are repeat offenders.

Using McClelland's (1961) theory of needs, the Machiavellian bosses prioritise their need for power over that of the employees power, as well as their need for affiliation, and achievement. When tactics of isolation are used, they come at the cost of the employee's need for affiliation, and when threats of dismissal are used, they will come at the cost of the employee's need for achievement and power. These are a few of the most commonly used tactics of High Mach individuals have employed to keep power and control in group environments.

Quiz yourself! In a fictional workplace, a manager frequently yells at his employees in front of customers and other staff members. He mocks one of his staff's accent, and other staff he purposefully does not invite to team meeting or staff gatherings. He has also frequently threatened to fire some staff in the middle of the busy season. What best describes his managers leadership style? Supportive Detached Harsh/abusive management Answer not listed

The Motivation behind the mask

Figure 3. An image showing how the Machiavellian likes to operate

How does Machiavellianism align with theories of motivation?

Research conducted by McHoskey (1999) examined the role of Machiavellianism, intrinsic versus extrinsic goals, and social interest. They found that those with Machiavellian tendencies had placed a strong emphasis on external rewards, such as money, over all else. These individuals would place themselves on a control orientation and would show little to no interest in social interests, such as making meaningful friendships, or interests in their wider community. Instead, all their energy would be placed on their careers and how they would advance, even if they had to do so by dishonest means.

Following the motivational theory of self-determination, they had placed all care into external rewards and had no care towards intrinsic rewards. As they placed no emphasis on intrinsic needs such as affiliation they were often very isolated and had very little to no personal relationship where they felt that they could be vulnerable.

A study conducted by Pilch (2008) looked at the relationship between Machiavellianism, emotional intelligence, and social competence. The method of implementation was a self-report survey administered to several members of management and staff. What they found was that there was a negative self-reported relationship between emotional intelligence and Machiavellianism. Similar findings by Muris et al. (2017) were also reported, as they noticed that Machiavellian individuals would often come across as aloof and quiet in relaxed social settings.

With such findings in mind, and linking towards McClelland's three needs theory, there is an emphasis on the need for power, and as a by-product achievement, but little to no need for affiliation. The higher a person's Machiavellian score, the less importance they will place upon closer personal relationships, and instead place such significance themselves.

The impact of Machiavellianism in the workplace

How does Machiavellianism manifest in everyday situations?

How Machiavellianism, and The Dark Triad by extension, affects the work environment a highly researched, (LeBreton et al., 2018; Aluja et al., 2022; Drory & Gluskinos, 1980). This section hopes to give a practical application of how Machiavellianism effects team dynamics. In a study by Drory & Gluskinos (1980), they attempted to find if workers would realise that they had a group leader with high Machiavellian traits. They administered Christie & Geis (1970) MACH-IV test to identify High Machs, and would then make them group leaders for a thirty minute group experiment. One group was given a stressful task, and another was given a relaxed, and there was a control group. They found that group with the high Machiavellian leaders would often take charge immediately with the relaxed group, and would start ordering around their workers.

While in the high stress group, the Machiavellian leaders would step away from the spotlight. Once the situation became dire and the workers started to look for their leader, did the Machiavellian start ordering them around. When the experiment was over, the workers would then rate their leaders. They found that the workers in the relaxed group and the stress group had very similar ratings of their leader. They all considered their leader authoritative, commanding, and did not notice anything out of the ordinary.

The researchers, on the other hand, that had observed something about the leaders in the experiment. They found that Machiavellian-minded people did not place any importance on creating connections, such as getting to know their team or fostering a calm environment, such as trying to calm down stressed teammates.

Linking these findings to the theories of McCelland (1961). The findings by Drory & Gluskinos (1980) show the consistent research trend that shows highly Machiavellian individuals will often chose to focus on the need for power, as they often use displays of domination to their teammates. As a by product, the need of achievement will also be satisfied as the Machiavellian leader will have completed the task but with the use of subjugation. The ignored need of affiliation is highlighted in the experiment, there are no attempts to create an environment of warmth by building connections, or fostering a welcoming environment.

Quiz yourself! According to Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), how do Machiavellian tactics affect the psychological needs of employees? They support autonomy, competence, and relatedness equally They primarily focus on improving the employees' competence. They harm employees' sense of relatedness and over time damage autonomy and competence. Increased employee trust and teamwork.

Mirko Duradoni et al. (2023) replicated such findings in their systematic review, as they had found people in Machiavellianism have a positive relationship with counterproductive workplace behavior, such as bullying and harassment. They also found that Machiavellian individuals are more likely to engage in authoritarian leadership styles.

The importance of why this is bad, not only for the workers but the business as well, as when employee feel badly treated there is a decline in profits and productivity(Schattke & Marion-Jetten, 2021). In a literate review by Kovach (2020) they found there to be a negative correlation between coercive workplace tactics, and long-term employee performance. The tactic that would was often used was the supervisor would play employees off of each other. When such a method was used, there would be a small rise in productivity for short time, usually a few days, and then it would start to fall. In the long term, it would start to become a workplace cultural problem.

Integrating the theoretical work of Ryan and Deci (2000) in their self-determination theory. The Machiavellian person will place importance on their own needs of competence and autonomy and place their needs over that of their employees and co-workers needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness. The tactic of playing employees off of each other harms the need of relatedness, and as symptom of these actions, the need of competence and autonomy are harmed, as the worker is denied choices, and they will often second guess all of their work (Pandey et al., 1987).

When analysing the effects of abusive supervision and its affects on the worker there is the problem that it may become a cultural problem of the workplace. In research by Pilch and Turska (2014) they found that high Machiavellian bosses often create workplace cultures of bullying, bullying acceptance, and other unethical behaviors to the workplace. Even when the Machiavellian ringleader is removed, the culture is not so easily removed, and the poison drips through. These findings are supported by LeBreton et al. (2018) in ananlysing the role of the dark triad and workplace culture.

Conclusion

Machiavellianism, one of the heads of the Dark triad, is evident have a consistent effect on power motivations and methods of maintaining power, even at the cost of others as seen with David and Anastasia, (Mirko Duradoni et al., 2023; Ekizler & Bolelli, 2020; Maria Zaman & Shazia Qayyum, 2020). Machiavellian behaviour is best defined as deceitful, manipulative behavior, and lacking of empathy as defined by Christie & Geis (1970). Research has shown shown that power seeking Machiavellian's will prioritise their own wants, such as money and fast cars, over close personal relationships, or community bonds (Maria Zaman and Shazia Qayyum, 2020; McHoskey, 1999).

With use theory of needs (McClelland, 1961) and Self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), it shows that Machiavellian people are driven by power and external validation, such as money and promotions (Muris et al., 2017). They will often neglect their intrinsic needs, such as relatedness or affiliation, and become isolated (McHoskey, 1999). This focus on goals of domination, and with no heart for companionship of any means can create toxic settings, (Mirko Duradoni et al., 2023; LeBreton et al., 2018). As seen with Anastasia and David.

Ultimately, the key to addressing Machiavellianism and cut throat power struggles as a whole is by doing what the Machiavellian says they don't care about, which is to love and accept. By fostering ideals of acceptance and relatedness,the needs of the intrinsic self (Ryan & Deci, 2000) counteracts against the toxic behavior of the Machiavellian. This creates a workplace that brings forth the workers, and the individuals, long term happiness and success.

The golden nugget Machiavellianism influences power seeking motivation by extrinsic means such as money Machiavellianism heavily aligns with McCelland's (1961) need of power and affiliation. It also aligns with Self-determination theories (Ryan & Deci, 2000) need of competence and autonomy. But the methods they seek to fulfill these needs come at the cost of others. The take home message of this book chapter is to try to foster an environment of compassion in the workplace and school setting

See also

• Dark triad (Wikipedia)
• Dark tetrad and motivation (Book chapter, 2023)
• Vulnerable dark triad, motivation, and emotion (Book chapter, 2024)

References

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Christie, R., & Geis, F. L. (1970). Studies in Machiavellianism. New York, Academic Press.

Drory, A., & Gluskinos, U. M. (1980). Machiavellianism and leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65(1), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.65.1.81

Ekizler, H., & Bolelli, M. (2020). The effects of dark triad (machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy) on the use of power sources. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi , 37(6), 27–44. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341788788_The_Effects_of_Dark_Triad_Machiavellianism_Narcissism_Psychopathy_on_the_Use_of_Power_Sources

Koestler, S. R., Bandelli, A. C., Spector, P. E., Borman, W. C., Nelson, C. E., & Penney, L. M. (2010). Re-Examining Machiavelli: A three-dimensional model of Machiavellianism in the workplace. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(8), 1868–1896. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00643.x

Kovach, M. (2020). Leader influence: A research review of French & Raven’s (1959) power dynamics. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.22543/0733.132.1312

LeBreton, J. M., Shiverdecker, L. K., & Grimaldi, E. M. (2018). The dark triad and workplace behavior. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5(1), 387–414. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104451

Maria Zaman, & Shazia Qayyum. (2020). Self-Efficacy, need for achievement and machiavellianism in public sector employees. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Research, 3(1), 27–32. https://doi.org/10.31580/ijer.v3i1.1354

McHoskey, J. W. (1999). Machiavellianism, intrinsic versus extrinsic goals, and social interest: A self-determination theory analysis. Motivation and Emotion, 23(4), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021338809469

Mirko Duradoni, Mustafa Can Gursesli, Martucci, A., Gonzalez, Y., Colombini, G., & Guazzini, A. (2023). Dark personality traits and counterproductive work behavior: A PRISMA systematic review. Psychological Reports. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941231219921

Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Otgaar, H., & Meijer, E. (2017). The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(2), 183–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616666070

Nilupulee Liyanagamage, & Fernando, M. (2023). Machiavellian leadership in organisations: A review of theory and research. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 44(6), 791–811. https://doi.org/10.1108/lodj-07-2022-0309

Pandey, J., Singh, P., & Singh, P. (1987). Effects of machiavellianism, other-enhancement, and power-position on affect, power feeling, and evaluation of the ingratiator. The Journal of Psychology, 121(3), 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1987.9712669

Pilch, I. (2008). Machiavellianism, emotional intelligence and social competence: Are Machiavellians interpersonally skilled? Polish Psychological Bulletin, 39(3). https://doi.org/10.2478/v10059-008-0017-4

Pilch, I., & Turska, E. (2014). Relationships between machiavellianism, organizational culture, and workplace bullying: Emotional abuse from the target’s and the perpetrator’s perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 128(1), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2081-3

Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th ed.).

Schattke, K., & Marion-Jetten, A. S. (2021). Distinguishing the Explicit Power Motives. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000481

Wisse, B., & Sleebos, E. (2016). When the dark ones gain power: Perceived position power strengthens the effect of supervisor Machiavellianism on abusive supervision in work teams. Personality and Individual Differences, 99, 122–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.019

External links

• Dark triad (Psychology Today)
• Dark Triad Personalities: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy (YouTube)
• Understanding the Dark Triad (Mind Tools)