Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Inner voice and motivation

Inner voice and motivation:
How does the inner voice influence motivation?

Overview

Figure 1. Sarah practicing her strategic self-talk by saying to herself "push through this.", providing her the motivation to complete the remainder of the race.

Scenario

Sarah (see Figure 1.), an avid runner, has set a goal to complete her first marathon. Sarah encounters various physical and mental challenges during her training. She begins to notice an increase in negative thoughts, especially during the more gruelling training sessions. Thoughts like "I can't do this" and "I'm too tired to keep going" start become more frequent. However, Sarah's coach introduces her to the concept of strategic self-talk. By consciously altering her inner dialogue to include statements like "I am strong" and "I can push through", Sarah begins to see a shift. Her perception of effort decreases, her endurance improves, and she finds herself more motivated to stick to her training plan. On race day, despite the physical exhaustion, Sarah draws on her positive inner voice, which helps her maintain energy, stay focused on her goal, and persist through the final, most challenging kilometres to cross the finish line.

The inner voice is a psychological phenomenon that refers to the inner dialogue that individuals engage in within their mind. This inner dialogue can act as a motivational tool, helping individuals to initiate behaviour, set meaningful goals, and sustain commitment even in the face of setbacks (Flanagan & Symonds, 2021). However, the same inner voice can also become a hindrance, especially when dominated by self-critical or negative thoughts, impacting one's ability to persevere (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).

Motivation is the internal process that gives behaviour its energy, direction and persistence (Reeves, 2018). It is the driving force behind every action, from basic survival needs like eating and sleeping to the pursuit of complex personal goals such as career advancement or artistic achievement. Baumeister (2015) argues that, fundamentally, motivation is the state of desiring change either within oneself or in one's environment. This dynamic process is shaped by the interaction between external environments and internal motives, which include needs, cognitions, and emotions (Reeve, 2018).

Motivation can be classified into two broad categories: extrinsic and intrinsic. Intrinsic motivation occurs when an individual is driven by internal satisfaction derived from the activity itself (Legault, 2020). In contrast, extrinsic motivation refers to behaviours performed to obtain external rewards or avoid negative consequences (Legault, 2020). Intrinsic motivation leads to more meaningful and sustained engagement and fosters a belief that one’s actions are self-determined (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This leads to an increased sense of autonomy. However, extrinsic motivation can reduce one’s sense of autonomy and decrease intrinsic motivation, especially when there is external pressure and control (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

This book chapter aims to explore the ways that the little voice inside our head influences motivation. Through psychological theory and research, this book chapter will uncover the positive and negative influence of the inner voice on motivation, strategies for improving motivation and the practical applications for these solutions.

Focus questions:

How does covert self-talk enhance components of intrinsic motivation?
In what ways does the IV influence an individual’s perception of effort during challenging tasks, and how does this impact their motivational energy?
How do different types of covert self-talk (motivational, instructional, and critical) impact self-regulation and performance outcomes?

What is the inner voice?

Inner voice (IV), internal dialogue, inner speech and covert self-talk are some of the terms that are used to refer to the personal experience of verbal language expressed internally, without external articulation (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015). It has been proposed to play an integral part in a range of cognitive functions and the regulation of behaviour (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015; Fernyhough & Borghi, 2023).

A methodological challenge that arises with the study of the IV is the fact that it is objectively unobservable, which has hindered the empirical study of the IV (Fernyhough & Borghi, 2023). The main and most direct method of understanding an individuals IV is self-report tools, such as questionnaires (Fernyhough & Borghi, 2023). However, these measures can be problematic because participants might provide answers that are influenced by their own preconceived ideas about how they believe their minds work, which could distort the accuracy of their responses (Fernyhough & Borghi, 2023). Other methods include 'think-aloud' in which participants are asked to verbalise their thoughts without filtering them (Oliver et al., 2008). A major limitation this poses is that the filtering of thoughts is inevitable and can result in non-reporting of vital data (Oliver et al., 2008).

A critical review of the self-talk literature highlighted that there is a lack of theory-driven research for many years, and much of the focus has been on overt self-talk (Hardy et al., 2004). The majority of the literature on self-talk examines both overt and covert forms simultaneously without distinguishing between the two (Hardy et al., 2004). The limitations this poses are significant: without isolating covert self-talk in research, it is hard to draw definitive conclusions about its unique influence on motivation (Fernyhough & Borghi, 2023). However, the IV, and how it relates to motivation, has attracted research interest across various fields. This includes developmental, educational and sport psychology where inner speech has been linked to self-regulation and endurance performance (Oliver, 2010).

Theoretical frameworks

The exploration of how the inner voice influences motivation is deeply rooted in multiple psychological frameworks that offer unique insights into the mechanisms of covert self-talk. Consideration of theoretical perspectives that illuminate its developmental, dialogical, motivational, and psychobiological aspects are needed in order to comprehensively understand the inner voice's role in motivation.

Vygotsky’s theory of inner speech

Vygotsky’s theory of inner speech provides a developmental and sociocultural framework for understanding how the inner voice influences motivation. According to Vygotsky, inner speech develops in childhood from external speech, which first develops through social interaction (Fernyhough & Borghi, 2023). Initially, children have overt interpersonal communication with caregivers or peers which aid in guiding and regulating their behaviour and attention (Winsler, 2009). Gradually, these external dialogues are internalised and become silent, covert inner speech (Winsler, 2009). It is this transition that allows children the ability to engage in higher order thinking such as self-reflection, self-regulation, and behavioural inhibition (Winsler, 2009).

This development supports a child’s ability to conduct independent action and adjust their actions according to goals or external demands (Verhaeghen & Mirabito, 2021). Building on this developmental process, Winsler and Naglieri (2003) demonstrated that overt speech plays a critical role in children's task performance, supporting their ability to shift from external verbalisations to internalised self-regulation. The study demonstrated that children who engage in self-directed speech while performing challenging tasks were better able to control their actions and improve their performance. Moreover, consistent with Vygotsky’s theory, it was observed that children's verbal strategies transitioned from overt to covert with age. Additionally, research by Fernyhough and Fradley (2005) corroborated these results, showing that private speech predicts cognitive control and task performance. These studies provide insight into how overt speech aids in guiding actions towards specific goals. Applying Vygotsky’s theory posits that these overt processes eventually become internalised as covert inner speech, which plays a similar role in adults.

Dialogical self theory

Dialogical Self Theory (DST), proposed by Hermans (1996), expands on the concept of the inner voice by suggesting that internal dialogue consists of multiple "I-positions." These positions represent different parts of the self, each with its own perspectives, which then communicate (Oleś et al., 2020). The way these I-positions interact plays a critical role in motivation, allowing us to negotiate between competing drives (e.g. the desire for immediate gratification vs. the pursuit of long-term goals) (Hermans, 1996). Research supports that inner speech can take on both monological and dialogical forms (Alderson-Day et al., 2014; McCarthy-Jones & Fernyhough, 2011). For instance, when an individual reflects or narrates a situation, the inner voice may be monological, while dialogical inner speech involves a more complex internal conversation. However, much of the existing data relies on self-report measures, which are limited by individuals' ability to introspect and accurately capture their inner experiences, raising concerns about objectivity.

Though the experimental studies that explore DST and its role in motivation remain sparse, there are multiple studies investigating internal dialogical activity that align with Hermans theory. Research by Kross et al. (2014) highlights the importance of the type of language used in the inner voice, particularly whether one uses first-person or second-person pronouns. Their studies show that using second-person pronouns (e.g. “You can do this Sarah”) facilitates psychological distancing, enabling individuals to appraise their situation more objectively or even as a challenge in anxiety-provoking situations, motivating individuals to persist. This reduces emotional intensity and increases self-regulation. Studies show that dialogues using second-person self-talk often mimics a conversation with an advisor or parent (Jin, 2005, 2010, as cited in Dolcos & Albarracin, 2014). Self- referential statements (“I”) is beneficial for introspection, but may hinder self-regulation under stress (Kross et al., 2014). The use of “you” language can be viewed as adopting a different I-position, and aligns with Vygotsky’s view that internal dialogues mimic the social support we receive from others (Dolcos & Albarracin, 2014). Use of second-person pronouns in the inner voice has also been shown to promote greater enjoyment and personal meaning derived from activities, which are key components in intrinsic motivation (Dolcos & Albarracin, 2014; Reeves, 2018). Therefore, the dynamic interplay between these inner voices influences how motivation is sustained and directed over time.

Self-determination theory

Self-determination Theory (SDT), proposed by Deci and Ryan (1985), is a framework that distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. A tenet of SDT is that individuals are most intrinsically motivated when they feel a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is driven external rewards (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Understanding how the inner voice modulates intrinsic and extrinsic motivation requires a focus on how it nurtures these components.

For instance, Flanagan and Symonds (2021) showed that children in middle childhood effectively used their IV to set and reinforce goals. The use of extrinsic motivation was found to be beneficial in settings where the child was struggling to complete a task due to lack of enjoyment or the task was too challenging. For example, the children would tell themselves that they would get rewarded for finishing their work. Alternatively, they would expressing to themselves that they may get punished for not finishing the work. Additionally, they employed a range of self-talk strategies such as positive self-talk like “I can solve this problem,” reinforcing their control and competence in the learning process.

Additionally, internal feedback and self-monitoring can have similar effects to external feedback (Bernstein, 1990). It is this feedback, whether it be self-generated or provided by someone else, that can shape someone’s sense of autonomy and competence (Bernstein, 1990). This feedback can either be controlling (pressuring the individual to act in specific ways) or informational (providing supportive guidance that enhances understanding or competence) (Bernstein, 1990). Thus, covert self-talk, acting as a form of internal feedback, can either provide informational support, which nurtures autonomy and competence, or controlling which undermines these needs.

The relationship between covert self-talk and autonomy is also shaped by the broader environment. In a study by Oliver et al. (2008), participants were asked to “think-aloud’ during a task, and their self-verbalisations were recorded in both autonomy-supportive and controlling environments. Manipulating the social environment relied on the experimenter offering the participants a meaningful reason for engaging in the task, acknowledging their feelings and emphasising personal choice in how they engaged in the activity. They found that in autonomy-supportive contexts, individuals tended to engage in more positive, constructive self-talk, which reinforced their sense of volition and competence. In contrast, controlling environments led to negative self-talk characterised by pressure, self-criticism, and diminished autonomy. It was also reported that those in the controlling group used more first-person references which aligns with the DST which posits that this language can heighten emotional arousal, interfering with effective self-regulation (Dolcos & Albarracin, 2014). This pattern underscores SDT’s claim that environments that foster autonomy enhance intrinsic motivation, partly by shaping the inner voice that individuals use to motivate themselves.

Psychobiological model

A model that is useful in the pursuit of understanding how the inner voice impacts a behaviors strength is the psychobiological model. The model proposed by Maroca (2019) argues that endurance performance, is predicated on two factors: the perception of effort (how strenuous an endurance task feels) and potential motivation (the amount of effort individuals are willing to invest in achieving a goal) (Galanis & Hatzigeorgiadis, 2020). Self-talk, particularly covert self-talk, is suggested to modulate both of these factors. Research shows that strategic self-talk positively influences endurance performance by lowering rate of perceived exertion (RPE) (Barwood et al., 2015; Blanchfield et al., 2014; Wallace et al., 2017).

Strategic self-talk includes both motivational self-talk to boost confidence and guide performance) and instructional self-talk (to focus attention and guide performance) (Blanchfield et al., 2014). A study done by Blanchfield et al. (2014) examined the effects of motivational self-talk during a time-to-exhaustion cycling trial. The experimental group received a self-talk intervention where participants were asked to select five motivational phrases they believed would help improve their performance and practice them during their exercise sessions. In the early-mid stage of the task, participants might say to themselves “feeling good”, and in the later stage of the task, they may say “push through this”. Those in the motivational self-talk trial cycled significantly longer and reported lower (RPE). Additionally, Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2011) conducted a meta-analysis showing that self-talk interventions, particularly those focusing on motivation and positive reinforcement, significantly improve performance in endurance sports. In contrast, negative inner speech—where individuals might criticise their efforts or question their capabilities, can heighten perceived effort, reducing motivation and leading to earlier task withdrawal.

While previous research (Barwood et al., 2015; Blanchfield et al., 2014; Wallace et al., 2017) supports the effectiveness of strategic self-talk in enhancing endurance, a study done by (Canacoo et al., 2016) found no significant differences in the endurance performance, RPE, or motivation levels between the self-talk group and the control group. However, individual differences may have affected the efficacy of the intervention given that participants were asked to use a predetermined set of three motivational statements. This highlights the need for individualising motivational strategies that are personally relevant to the participants.

There is a notable gap in the literature specifically isolating the effects of covert self-talk on endurance performance (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015). However, this gap does not negate the influence of covert self-talk as a tool for enhancing endurance, considering that it is still being manipulated in these experimental conditions. Future research should aim to distinguish the individual impact of covert self-talk on endurance performance to elucidate its motivational effects.

Case study:

Emily, an 8-year-old student, often struggles with math and feels frustrated when faced with difficult problems. Her teacher encourages her to use her inner voice to stay motivated. Emily starts telling herself, "If I finish this, I can play later," or "If I don’t do this, I might miss out on recess."

One day, when Emily encounters a challenging math assignment, she feels the usual frustration but quickly uses her self-talk strategy. By reminding herself of the rewards for completing her work and the consequences of not doing it, she pushes through and finishes her homework. This small success boosts her confidence and helps her stay motivated in future tasks.

Quiz yourself!

Conclusion

In conclusion, the inner voice plays has a multifaceted and significant role in shaping motivation. Through drawing on various theoretical frameworks, it becomes clear that covert self-talk serves as both a guide and a regulator of motivation. Vygotsky’s work provides a sociocultural perspective to the IV, elucidating how the IV evolves from social interaction and the process through which those interactions become internalised to shape behaviour (Fernyhough & Borghi, 2023). Equipping individuals, especially children, with the tools to self-regulate through positive narratives, can enhance their ability to persist in tasks. When children learn to internalise affirming phrases—such as “I can do this” or “I have a choice”—they reinforce their sense of agency and competency, making it easier for them to navigate challenges in the future (Winsler & Naglieri, 2003). DST shows that multiple internal "selves" can drive our motivations in different contexts (Hermans, 1996). Adopting a parental self through using second-person pronouns reduces emotional intensity and promotes self-regulation (Kross et al., 2014). SDT further illustrates that covert self-talk can foster intrinsic motivation by reinforcing key psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Flanagan & Symonds, 2023). However, the degree of influence is context-dependent and varies based on whether the self-talk is instructional, motivational, or critical (Bernstein, 1990). Moreover, creating an autonomy-supportive environment is crucial for fostering positive, constructive self-talk which in turn, fosters intrinsic motivation (Oliver et al., 2008). Finally, the psychobiological model demonstrates how the inner voice supports endurance and persistence, particularly in high-effort tasks through the use of strategic self-talk (Galanis & Hatzigeorgiadis, 2020). For individuals looking to improve not just athletic performance, but also any tasks requiring prolonged effort, such as studying, working on long projects, adopting strategic self-talk can help maintain motivation and decrease the subjective difficulty of their tasks.

Despite the prevalence of the inner voice, much of the research remains focused on overt self-talk, leaving gaps in understanding the specific impact of covert self-talk on motivation. Future research should aim to address these gaps, in order to maximise the under-explored potential in psychology. Nonetheless, it is evident that internal dialogues are active agents that influence how individuals engage with challenges, regulate emotions, and pursue goals.

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