Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Better-than-average-effect

Better-than-average effect:
Why do people tend to think they are better than average, what are the consequences, and what can be done about it?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Figure 1. An overconfident player misses a shot. A group of 10 friends decide that they want to try a new sport, so they sign up to a local basketball competition. Talking amongst themselves, seven of the friends believe that despite having never played the sport before, they will be able to shoot and handle the ball well, and place first in the competition. This scenario demonstrates the better-than-average effect, with the majority of the team believing their skill is greater than that of their peers, despite having no way to prove it. Do you think the team will enjoy their first season of basketball with their high expectations? Will their BTAE inspired confidence assist them in their games?

The Better-than-average effect (BTAE), also known as Illusory Superiority is a form of bias that occurs in all aspects of life, where an individual will overestimate their capabilities, skill or traits when compared to others. It is not limited to any on aspect of life, but is applicable everywhere, such as sports, driving, intelligence or beauty. Research suggests that there are several psychological reasonings to explain why people will display BTAE, such as motivation, regulating self-esteem and confidence. Despite this, BTAE has clear downfalls, such as being too hard on yourself when you don't live up to your expectations for yourself, overconfidence and arrogance.

Focus questions: What psychological factors contribute to the development of the Better-than-average effect? How does the Better-than-average effect impact relationships, teamwork and collaboration? What are some ways for individuals to find more accurate self-assessments?

Why Individuals Believe they are Above Average

There are a myriad of reasons as to why individuals rate themselves higher than the average person. Alicke and Guenther (2010) discuss that individuals will ignore behavioural information when comparing themselves to their peers, and will then apply a better-than-average heuristic.

Self-Enhancement Theory

Self-enhancement theory believes that people are driven by a need to upkeep a positive self-image, which in turn causes them to overestimate their own capabilities and character. This need to feel seen in a positive light causes individuals to perform various cognitive strategies, such as primary and secondary control, to boost self-esteem, create motivation or even a sense of self-worth. Alicke and Sedikides (2009) explain primary and secondary control as primary control involves an individual undertaking actions to change their environment, and secondary control is when an individual cannot change their environment, so they instead change their response or view of it.

As the better-than-average effect involves individuals rating themselves as above average, self-enhancement theory assists in understanding why people do. An individuals need to be constantly seen in a positive self-image can lead to secondary control, using selective memory to view themselves in a favourable light, therefore leaving them in an above average group.

Social Comparison Theory

Social comparison theory posits that individuals compare themselves to their peers in order to evaluate their own capabilities, traits and beliefs (Festinger, 1954). This psychological self-evaluation tool appears in two forms: upward comparison, when the comparer evaluates themselves to a higher standard, or downward comparison, when the comparer evaluates to a lower standard (Gerber et al., 2018). Each comparison serves a different psychological purpose, with Wills (1981) stating downward comparisons are used to increase self-esteem through feelings of superiority. Downward comparisons are more complex, as Collins (1996) noting they can create negative emotions impacting self-esteem, or positive emotions in the form of assimilating to the superior, or creating motivation.

Social comparison theory lends itself to better-than-average effect as when an individuals self-esteem is threatened they seek downward comparisons in order to maintain positive self-esteem (Hakmiller, 1966). This creates a sense of superiority that leads to individuals believing they are above average in their abilities, traits and thoughts.

Scenario: Imagine you're playing a video game with a group of friends, and you're the best out of your friends. Then when you play with strangers, and you perform the worst on the team. Would you seek a downward comparison, comparing yourself to your friends to maintain your self-esteem? Or an upward comparison, matching yourself up to the better performing strangers to create motivation?

Advantages and Drawbacks

Alicke and Klotz (1995) stated that the reasoning behind better-than-average effect is the favourable self-view helps to maintain relatively high levels of self-esteem. Despite this, the better-than-average effect also has several drawbacks, such as overconfidence and resistance to feedback.

Self-Esteem and Motivation

The better-than-average effects primary goals are to regulate self-esteem and provide motivation. Zell et al. (2020) showcased this by explaining that the better-than-average effect is much more prominent in traits that are perceived as culturally or personally important, due to these traits having greater motivational significance, or being much more prominent in individuals who had received negative feedback on their intelligence compared to those who received no feedback. Maintaining this inflated self-view acts as a buffer, allowing individuals to be less likely to feel discouraged by criticism or setbacks.

Quiz A basketball player misses several key shots during a game, but they still believe they are a better player than most of their teammates. This belief keeps them motivated to practice harder and improve. They consider athletic ability to be one of their most important personal traits. Question: Why does the basketball player remain motivated despite their poor performance? They don't care about winning or losing They believe they are better, focusing on their athletic capabilities They think it was their teammates fault They think the coach will still be happy with their performance

Overconfidence and Resistance to Feedback

A common criticism of better-than-average effect is that it is hard to define what truly is "average". In many cases, individuals will compare themselves to someone who they perceive as "average", yet this person may be well below or above the "true average", leading to a warped self-perception, and oftentimes select underachievers to compliment their self-esteem (Kim et al., 2017). This comparison is then flawed, which can lead to overconfidence, which can act as a buffer for accepting criticism, leading to preventing self-acceptance and growth.

Figure 2. An employee undertaking a performance review to accurately assess their performance.

Dealing with Better-Than-Average Effect

Alicke and Zell (2011) note that BTAE is largely prominent in young adults compared to middle aged and older adults, proposing that they have significantly more time to understand their relative strengths and weaknesses to a greater degree, leading to more modest comparisons.

Seeking Objective Feedback

Regular check-ins and appraisals (see Figure 2) from mentors and peers help to increase accuracy of self-evaluations, with Sleiman (2020) stating that performance feedback is a versatile, cheap and easy to use intervention that can be used as a punisher or reinforcer. While better-than-average effect can create issues with accepting feedback, a continuous or regular feedback loop allows for a steady appraisal of where an individual is performing.

Raising Specific Awareness

An invaluable point expressed by Russo and Schoemaker (2016) was "Although general awareness of a bias is invaluable, it does not guarantee that the bias will be spotted in every instance". Specific awareness is much more effective in combatting better-than-average effect due to a greater insight into the issue, such as how and why it manifests. This allows for individuals to recognise it in themselves and their peers early, and understand how to combat it.

Quiz

1 Are you better than the average driver?:

	Yes
	No

2 Have you ever received feedback that didn't align with your self-perception?:

	Yes
	No

3 If yes, did you learn from the feedback, or rebuke it?:

	Learn
	Rebuke

Conclusion

The better-than-average effect is an extremely common psychological cognitive bias that increases an individuals' perceptions of themselves in order to feel self-esteem, motivation and optimism. In specific contexts, it is a positive tool, allowing individuals to stay focused and committed to achieve their goals. In other contexts, it is a negative tool, hindering individuals from growth and in some cases, causing overconfidence and unrealistic expectations of themselves. Future research could investigate the better-than-average effect, to see if a useful medium could be achieved to maximise self-esteem and motivation without the negatives.

See also

• Illusory Superiority (Wikipedia)
• Optimism Bias (Wikipedia)
• Selective Memory(Wikipedia)
• Social Comparison Theory(Wikipedia)
• Leon Festinger (Wikipedia)
• Cognitive Strategies (Wikipedia)
• Self-Esteem (Wikiversity)

References

Alicke, M. D., Klotz, M. L., Breitenbecher, D. L., Yurak, T. J., & Et al. (1995). Personal contact, individuation, and the better-than-average effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(5), 804-825.

Benoit, J., Dubra, J., & Moore, D. A. (2013). Does the better-than-Average effect show that people are Overconfident?: Two experiments. SSRN Electronic Journal.

Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 51-69.

Eriksson, K., & Funcke, A. (2012). Humble self-enhancement: Religiosity and the better-than-Average effect. SSRN Electronic Journal.

Gerber, J. P., Wheeler, L., & Suls, J. (2018). A social comparison theory meta-analysis 60+ years on. Psychological Bulletin, 144(2), 177-197.

Guenther, C. L., & Alicke, M. D. (2010). Deconstructing the better-than-average effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(5), 755–770.

Hakmiller, K. L. (1966). Threat as a determinant of downward comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1, 32-39.

Kim, Y., Kwon, H., & Chiu, C. (2017). The better-than-Average effect is observed because “Average” is often construed as below-median ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 8.

Russo, J. E., & Schoemaker, P. J. (2016). Overconfidence. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Strategic Management, 1-11.

Sleiman, A. A., Sigurjonsdottir, S., Elnes, A., Gage, N. A., & Gravina, N. E. (2020). A quantitative review of performance feedback in organizational settings (1998-2018). Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 40(3-4), 303-332.

Taylor, S. G., Eisenbarth, H., Sedikides, C., & Alicke, M. D. (2020). Explaining the better‐than‐average effect among prisoners.

Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90(2), 245-271.

Zell, E., & Alcike, M. D. (2011). Age and the better-than-Average effect. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(5), 1175-1188.

Zell, E., Strickhouser, J. E., Sedikides, C., & Alicke, M. D. (2020). The better-than-average effect in comparative self-evaluation: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 146(2), 118-149.

External links

• The Dunning-Kruger Effect (Youtube.com)
• Worse-Than-Average Effect - Study by Moore, 2007 (ScienceDirect.com)
• Illusory Superiority (ted.com)