Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Autism and motivation

Autism and motivation:
How does autism influence motivation?

Please note: Research in this area is limited, focussed on specific aspects of motivation in autism, and reliable alternative links are provided when Wikipedia pages are unavailable.

Overview

Figure 1: Overwhelmed student

Scenario

Imagine you're an autistic student faced with a mountain of assignments. You feel intensely drawn to a particular topic, pouring all your time and energy into it, yet struggle to even begin the tasks that don’t interest you. The pressure builds, but instead of motivating you, it overwhelms you, leading to avoidance and burnout. This causes you to leave everything to the last minute and eventually suffer bad grades.

This scenario shows the challenges autistic individuals face in daily life and academics, influencing motivation. This chapter explores these challenges, examining why motivation is influenced differently in autism and why understanding this is important for tailored support strategies.

Focus questions

How do different factors/theories of autism influence motivation?
Are autistic individuals more likely to be intrinsically, or extrinsically motivated? How do special interests influence this?
How does focusing too deeply on one thing help, or hurt, motivation?

What is autism?

Figure 2: Support levels of autism

Figure 3. Overlapping clinical phenotypes in genes associated with ASD.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), or autism, is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by differences in social communication, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviours. It falls under the broader concept of neurodiversity, which views brain differences, including autism, as natural and valuable aspects of human diversity. The DSM-5 combines earlier diagnoses like asperger’s disorder and pervasive developmental disorder under a single ASD diagnosis, reflecting the idea of a spectrum.

ASD is described as a spectrum because individuals can have varying support needs, ranging from minimal to very substantial assistance (see Figure 2), an example of this being nonverbal individuals. Common characteristics in autism include challenges in communication, sensory sensitivities, intense/special interests, and repetitive behaviours such as "stimming," which helps manage sensory input and emotions. In some cases, autistic individuals may exhibit extraordinary abilities, such as those with savant syndrome who display talents like photographic memory. Though rare, cases like these have contributed to misconceptions about autism by highlighting extraordinary abilities alongside areas of difficulty.

Using identity-first language [1][2], such as "autistic individual," is essential in advocacy and will be employed throughout this article, except when specifically discussing the diagnosis. Autism often coexist with other conditions like ADHD and anxiety, sharing similar phenotypes (see Figure 3), and this overlap can complicate diagnosis and support needs, as traits of ASD can often blend with those of other conditions. Diagnosing ASD involves evaluating social communication challenges, and repetitive behaviours, both of which can vary widely across the spectrum. Historically, research on autism has been centred around young, Eurocentric males, a bias reinforced by the Extreme Male Brain Theory (Baron-Cohen, 1999). This narrow focus has contributed to delayed and missed diagnosis in women, girls, and adults, highlighting the multifaceted nature of neurodiversity and the need for nuanced approaches to support.


Case study - Jamie
Meet Jamie, a 20-year-old psychology student passionate about abnormal psychology. They spend hours studying topics like schizophrenia and dissociative identity disorder, impressing both classmates and professors. However, group projects are stressful for Jamie. Social motivation is a struggle, and they often feel out of place, preferring to work alone. This sometimes causes friction and affects their grades in collaborative assignments. Jamie also faces executive function challenges. While highly motivated in their favorite subjects, they often lose track of time and miss deadlines for less interesting assignments, leading to inconsistent performance and added stress.

How well do you understand Jamie's situation?

Jamie’s Problem: Jamie’s experience shows the challenge of balancing a deep passion for abnormal psychology with the demands of university life. Their special interest drives success in certain areas, but struggles with social motivation and executive function create obstacles. This highlights the need for strategies to help students like Jamie manage university life while staying engaged with their passions.

Overview of motivation

Motivation is a psychological construct that refers to the processes/reasons that drive goal-directed behaviour. In psychology, it is often divided into 2 forms:

Intrinsic motivation

Driven by internal rewards, such as enjoyment or interest in the activity itself. For autistic individuals, intrinsic motivation often connects to special interests, which can strongly motivate learning and growth.

Extrinsic motivation

Ultimately based off-of B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning (positive/negative reward/punisher), this form relies on external rewards or punishments. For autistic individuals, non-social rewards and clear, tangible outcomes may be more motivating than social rewards.

Motivation is ultimately influenced by internal desires and external pressures, pushing us to pursue goals or avoid negative outcomes. In autism, neurological, sensory, and cognitive factors impact motivation, affecting how individuals approach tasks and respond to situations. Understanding these factors is crucial in supporting autistic individuals.

The social motivation hypothesis

When it specifically comes to motivation in autistic individuals, the Social Motivation Hypothesis (SMH) posits that autistic individuals show less interest in social stimuli, such as faces and eye contact, which limits opportunities for social learning and skill development (Clements et al., 2018). First introduced by Coralie Chevallier and colleagues in 2012, the SMH suggests that these early deficits in social motivation lead to broader social difficulties, building on theories like Theory of Mind (ToM). Jaswal and Akhtar (2018) suggest that behaviors like reduced eye contact, common in autism, are often misinterpreted as disinterest but actually reflect different motivations or responses. They advocate for a more humane and accurate understanding of these behaviors to better support autistic individuals.

Factors of autism that influence motivation

Executive dysfunction

Executive dysfunction, or a struggle/deficit in executive function, refers to difficulties in managing thoughts, emotions, and actions, particularly with tasks that involve working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. Executive function, a term first developed by Pribram (1973), is important for organising and planning, shifting focus, and maintaining self-control.

Executive function, encompassing skills like working memory, impulse control, and mental flexibility; which are often impaired in autistic individuals and other neurodevelopmental disorders linked to frontal lobe deficits (Hill, 2003). Rabinovici et al. (2015) identify four key components of executive function: working memory, inhibition, set shifting, and fluency. Dysfunction in these areas may stem from damage to the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Understanding these impairments is crucial for developing effective interventions and strategies to support individuals in both educational and daily life settings.

In autistic individuals, executive dysfunction can make it hard to start tasks, stay focused, and adapt to changes, affecting motivation. This lack of control can lead to anxiety, especially with tasks lacking immediate rewards, while planning and flexibility issues further hinder motivation. Despite strengths in memory and attention to detail, struggles with task initiation can block sustained motivation. Accommodations like breaking tasks into smaller steps, visual aids, and flexible pacing can ease cognitive overload and improve task completion (Ozonoff & Schetter, 2011). For some, these challenges are intensified by extreme avoidance, known as Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA).

Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA)

Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA) describes a profile within Autism Spectrum Disorder where individuals exhibit an extreme need to avoid everyday demands. This avoidance often stems from a desire to maintain autonomy and control, leading to heightened anxiety and emotional responses. The autism community also sometimes refer to PDA as 'Pervasive Drive for Autonomy' a term coined by Tomlin Wilding, believing it fits better to the meaning of the concept. PDA was first investigated as a distinct disorder by Elizabeth Newson about 50 years ago, and then made a separate syndrome to ASD by Newson (2003). PDA is characterised by an extreme anxiety-driven need for control, distinguishing it from typical autism deficits like social communication difficulties. O’Nions et al. (2017) identify triggers such as anxiety, sensory sensitivities, and phobias, which, combined with a strong need for autonomy, can reduce motivation as any demand may prompt avoidance, hindering task initiation and completion.

Figure 4. Self-Determination Theory

People with PDA may avoid tasks, even ones they want to do, due to anxiety and a need for control. This avoidance stems from feeling overwhelmed, not a lack of motivation. For example, a student with PDA might avoid schoolwork they enjoy because the pressure threatens their sense of autonomy. The sense of autonomy, combined with competence and relatedness, are the three basic needs for optimal wellbeing according to the Self-Determination Theory (see Figure 4), further highlighting the impact PDA can have on ASD motivation. Creating low-pressure, flexible environments can help support these needs. Moore (2020), however, warns that PDA may pathologise some autistic behaviors. Kildahl et al. (2021) highlight methodological issues in PDA research, such as its definition, construct validity, and measurement, underscoring the need for further study on PDA’s relationship with other disorders such as anxiety and trauma. Despite the limitations and concerns surrounding its classification, it is crucial to acknowledge PDA as a valid condition that significantly impacts motivation and daily functioning, as avoidance of demands may represent a coping strategy rather than a form of non-compliance (Egan et al., 2018). Necessitating a nuanced understanding of its unique challenges. PDA also relates to autistic inertia, where individuals struggle to start new tasks or transition between activities.

Autistic inertia

Autistic inertia is a common experience among autistic individuals, characterised by difficulties in initiating or transitioning between tasks. This phenomenon often feels like being stuck, where there is a desire to engage in an activity, but the ability to move forward is hindered. This phenomenon can be understood through the framework of Burnout, Inertia, Meltdown, and Shutdown (BIMS) (Phung et al., 2021), which explores how these interconnected experiences affect the emotional, cognitive, and physical well-being of autistic individuals.

Factors contributing to inertia include challenges with executive functioning, perfectionism, and environmental pressures. Autistic individuals may also experience anxiety, fatigue, or overwhelm, which can worsen inertia. Buckle et al. (2021) highlight the complexity of inertia, involving physical, emotional, and cognitive factors, stressing that it goes beyond motor skills or executive functioning. Understanding these nuances can improve support strategies, emphasizing compassion and collaboration from caregivers. Buckle et al. (2021) also found that some autistic individuals view inertia positively when deeply focused on a task, leading to a productive state of 'inertial motion.' This focus, often seen negatively, can resemble the 'flow state,' which will be explored later.

Lets see if we can understand these 3 similar concepts a bit better with a table:

Aspect	Executive Dysfunction	Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA)	Autistic Inertia
Definition	Difficulty focusing, organising, and transitioning between tasks. Trouble managing thoughts and emotions.	Avoids tasks due to extreme anxiety or nervous system dysregulation, aiming to maintain control.	"At rest stays at rest, in motion stays in motion". Difficulty with initiating and stopping tasks. Motivation present but tasks feel daunting, leading to feeling "stuck".
Key features	Disorganisation, paired with impaired impulse control, flexibility, and emotional regulation.	Extreme avoidance of everyday demands, even if appearing 'minor'. Anxiety relating to the need for control and autonomy dominates behavior.	Feels "stuck" trying to start or switch tasks, may hyper-focus and deep focus may resemble a “flow state”.
Presentation	Procrastination, disorganised, struggles with time management and emotional regulation.	Resistant or defiant toward everyday requests, may use strategies like distraction or negotiation.	Appears passive or frozen before tasks, struggles to stop or shift activities once started.
Motivational influence	Struggles with initiating and sustaining tasks, reduced motivation for planned tasks, and difficulty following through.	Need to avoid demands can override motivation, despite desiring to complete a task. Avoidance often serves as a coping mechanism rather than a lack of motivation.	Motivation to engage exists, but issues with initiation and momentum hinder starting tasks. The feeling of being stuck can lower "activation energy"
Anxiety prominence	Anxiety arises from challenges in organising thoughts and time, worsening focus and total executive dysfunction.	Avoidance highly linked to anxiety (but not always present), particularly the feeling of being controlled or losing autonomy.	Anxiety may be present, especially when feeling overwhelmed. Despite this, inertia is not primarily driven by anxiety.

Monotropism

Monotropism is a theory of autism that offers a non-pathologising perspective on the autistic experience. First developed by autistic individuals Dinah Murray, Wenn Lawson and Mike Lesser in the 1990s, and first published in 2005 (Murray et al., 2005), it seeks to explain many autistic traits through the lens of attention and focus. Fergus Murray, Dinah Murray's son, continues to share and expand upon their work through the website Monotropism.org. The theory suggests that autistic people tend to focus intensely on a smaller number of interests at any given time, leaving fewer mental resources for other tasks. In terms of motivation, this means that when engaged in areas of deep interest, autistic individuals often exhibit strong motivation. However, tasks outside these focused interests may feel overwhelming or unappealing, making it harder to shift attention or find motivation. This focus also connects to The intense world hypothesis of autism, where individuals become hyper-attuned to specific stimuli and are easily overwhelmed by sensory input. Additionally, monotropism can amplify anxiety when tasks demand attention shifting or multitasking, reinforcing the importance of meaningful, singular interests in motivating autistic people.

Special interests

Special interests are one of the definitive features of autism, and are deep, focused passions that often drive individuals to immerse themselves in a particular subject or activity for extended periods (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001). Similar to a hyperfixation (short-term interests in a subject, lasting days to months, often seen in people with ASD/ADHD but possible for anyone), but lasting a much longer time. These interests are fueled by intrinsic motivation, that is, autistic people often pursue them for the pure joy of learning or engagement of their interest. This internal drive allows autistic individuals to develop exceptional expertise and excel in their special interests far beyond the level of a neurotypical person with, say, a more casual hobby. These interests can serve as a powerful source of motivation, enhancing learning, focus, and even daily functioning by providing a sense of purpose and fulfillment. When fully engaged in a special interest, many autistic individuals may enter a flow state, a mental state of complete absorption and focus, where time seems to slip away and performance reaches its peak.

Figure 5: Display of Flow State

Impact on daily life and academic + professional motivation

Daily life and routine motivation

Routines greatly benefit autistic individuals by providing structure and enhancing day-to-day motivation. Disruptions to these routines, and problems like sensory sensitivities, can significantly impact motivation and lead to setbacks. Establishing clear objectives and incorporating special interests (eg. a toothbrush decorated as your favourite character) can help improve motivation for completing daily activities.

Academic and professional motivation

Academic, professional and social settings can often feel overwhelming for autistic individuals, which may decrease motivation to complete tasks. To counter this, incorporating special interests and making environmental adjustments can create a more supportive atmosphere, ultimately enhancing motivation and engagement.

Practical accomodations and strategies to help motivation in autistic individuals

Supporting motivation in autistic individuals involves structured but flexible environments. Predictable settings with visual supports, such as schedules or task lists, reduce anxiety and foster engagement. Flexibility in task "choice, interspersing maintenance tasks, and using natural reinforcers can support core symptom improvement and academic success" (Koegel et al., 2010). Prioritising sensory and emotional needs with stimming breaks and sensory tools, especially in high-focus situations like exams, aids emotional regulation and sustained motivation. Breaking tasks into manageable steps with clear, unambiguous instructions helps those with executive function challenges avoid overwhelm, while achievable goals and recognition of progress maintain motivation. Positive reinforcement and constructive feedback that emphasise strengths and growth encourage ongoing effort across academic and workplace settings. Additionally, educating communities on autism fosters inclusivity and understanding, reducing stigma and ensuring support for autistic individuals to thrive.

Conclusion

In conclusion, autism profoundly influences motivation through a complex interplay of cognitive, emotional, and environmental factors. Autistic individuals often face unique challenges in initiating and sustaining motivation, largely due to difficulties with executive functioning, PDA, inertia, and intense focus on special interests. Theories like monotropism and the intense world hypothesis show how hyper-attunement to certain stimuli affects motivation across various settings, illustrating that motivation is not just willpower but involves understanding the autistic experience. Positive aspects of motivation and autism, such as utilising special interests, intrinsic motivation, and the flow state, demonstrate how motivation can be fostered by leveraging these strengths. Autism influences motivation by affecting executive functioning and sensory processing, presenting unique challenges while also highlighting strengths like hyper-focus, which enhances intrinsic motivation in supportive environments.

Implications highlight the importance of structured environments, leveraging accomodations, flexibility and adopting strengths-based approaches to enhance motivation. Routines and structured environments enhance motivation by providing predictability and reducing anxiety, while strategies like breaking tasks into manageable steps and offering sensory support are essential for promoting motivation. Prioritising sensory and emotional support allows caregivers and educators to foster engagement and personal growth. Ultimately, fostering awareness and an inclusive understanding of autism, and its impact on motivation, paves the way for more effective support strategies. This approach not only benefits autistic individuals but also enriches the broader community, promoting a culture of understanding and collaboration that enhances everyone’s capacity for motivation and growth.

References

Baron-Cohen, S. (1999). The Extreme Male-Brain theory of Autism. In The MIT Press eBooks (pp. 390–418). https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/4945.003.0023

Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external Intervention”: First-Hand Accounts of Autistic Inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596

Chevallier, C., Kohls, G., Troiani, V., Brodkin, E. S., & Schultz, R. T. (2012). The social motivation theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.02.007

Clements, C. C., Zoltowski, A. R., Yankowitz, L. D., Yerys, B. E., Schultz, R. T., & Herrington, J. D. (2018). Evaluation of the social motivation hypothesis of autism. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(8), 797. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1100

Egan, V., Linenberg, O., & O’Nions, E. (2018). The measurement of adult pathological demand avoidance traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(2), 481–494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3722-7

Hill, E. L. (2003). Executive dysfunction in autism☆. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(1), 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.003

Jaswal, V. K., & Akhtar, N. (2018). Being versus appearing socially uninterested: Challenging assumptions about social motivation in autism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 42. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x18001826

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Koegel, L. K., Singh, A. K., & Koegel, R. L. (2010). Improving Motivation for Academics in Children with Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(9), 1057–1066. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0962-6

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Moore, A. (2020). Pathological demand avoidance: What and who are being pathologised and in whose interests? Global Studies of Childhood, 10(1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/2043610619890070

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O’Nions, E., Viding, E., Floyd, C., Quinlan, E., Pidgeon, C., Gould, J., & Happé, F. (2017). Dimensions of difficulty in children reported to have an autism spectrum diagnosis and features of extreme/‘pathological’ demand avoidance. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 23(3), 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12242

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Phung, J., Penner, M., Pirlot, C., & Welch, C. (2021). What I wish you knew: Insights on burnout, inertia, meltdown, and shutdown from autistic youth. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.741421

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Rapaport, H., Clapham, H., Adams, J., Lawson, W., Porayska-Pomsta, K., & Pellicano, E. (2023). “In a State of Flow”: a qualitative examination of autistic adults’ phenomenological experiences of task immersion. Autism in Adulthood. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2023.0032

External links

Autistic inertia (kiddclinic.com.au)
How do we describe autism (aspect.org.au)
Identity-First Language (autisticadvocacynetwork.org)
I'm Autistic, Now What? (YouTube channel covering many concepts mentioned)
Monotropism (monotropism.org)
Monotropism, learning and flow state (reframingautism.org.au)
Motivation and autism (theplaceforchildrenwithautism.com)
Social Motivation Hypothesis (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
The intense world hypothesis of autism (thetransmitter.org)
Theories of autism (thetransmitter.org)
Theories of Motivation (structural-learning.com)
What is autism? (thespectrum.org.au)

	How to avoid group projects
	The need for strategies to balance interests and university demands
	Benefits of focusing solely on one subject
	The ease of handling all academic tasks