Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Work and passion

Work and passion:
What is the relationship between work and passion?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Figure 1. Motivation steps for success

Passion should be the fire that drives your life's work - Michael Dell.

Motivation is excitement and activation toward certain activities or behaviours (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Motivation is important to a company and its workers. It promotes an individual in achieving personal aims. Work motivation is goal-oriented continuous activity as well as a psychological phenomenon that turns ability into performance (Forest et al., 2012). For example, motivated employees will be more satisfied with their job, perform better, and be more eager to succeed (Vallerand et al., 2003). Passion for work is tremendous pleasure and motivation for what you do. One thing that makes a difference in your profession and your productivity is a passion for working (see Figure 1).

This chapter presents a synthesis of such work and passion research. This chapter focuses on the relationship between work and passion. Further, discusses three motivational theories including the dualistic model of passion, self-determination theory, and cognitive evaluation theory to expand our understanding of work and passion.

Key points: Definition of work and passion What is the relationship between work and passion? Define the psychological needs for work and passion Motivational theories related to work and passion

Definition of work and passion

Figure 2. Tea picker in Nilgiris - work with passion (happy person)

"I have no special talents. I am only passionately curious". - Albert Einstein

Passion is the fuel that inspires and leads people to certain goals, no matter how implausible or difficult. Passion is a strong desire for an activity (e.g., work), in which time and energy have been spent, which is part of our personality (Vallerand et al., 2003). In the history of western philosophers like Plato and Descartes, passion has been associated with strong, very exciting emotions that are counter to reason (Vallerand et al., 2003). Work passion is becoming more and more recognised as its accessibility in popular and empirical discussion is reflected (Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand et al., 2010).

Vallerand et al. (2003) emphasised work passion for time and expenditures in work focused on enjoyable and significant activities (see figure 2). Although, Maslach and Leiter (2008) debated the passion for a strong commitment to rewarding and self-effective activities. In the new millennium, the concept of passion at work has been enhanced with an increasing number of practitioner articles highlighted that the role of being passionate about one's job, and how industries benefit from having passionate employees (Baum & Locke, 2004). A famous example is the definition of work-passion (2004) by Baum and Locke as "emotions of love, attachment, and passion" which means that work and passion have been interpreted as a purely emotive experience (see Figure 2).

Types of passion

Research presented by Robert Vallerand at the Western Positive Psychology Conference shows that passion is broken up into two types: harmonious passion (HP) and obsessive passion (OP) (Forest et al., 201; Vallerand et al., 2003).

Harmonious passion

Harmonious passion is psychologically separate from the concept of work engagement, which is described as a mental state with tremendous strength, dedication and self-absorption (Forest et al., 2012). Harmonious passion is a self-defining feature that is part of people's sense of who they are and not a state of mind (Vallerand et al., 2003). For example, a teacher who loves and values teaching but who can equally freely and actively participate in his/her work without creating problems with the other essential areas of his/her life would be an example of harmonious passion (e.g. relationships with family and friends) (Hakanen et al., 2006). Hence, harmonious work passion has been connected to positive work outcomes, includes higher psychological well-being, work participation, and task performance (Ho & Astakhova, 2018).

Obsessive passion

Obsessive passion relates to the powerful and effective immediate need for self-defining activities such as employment and professional work (Vallerand et al., 2003). In contrast, it is usually a strong but more determined desire, a powerful but harmonious passion for work. This type of passion is the outcome of a managed integration activity within a person's identity (Forest et al., 2012). In particular, interpersonal and/or intrapersonal activity factors such as delegation self-esteem, social acceptance or high performance contribute to the development and growth of an obsessive enthusiasm for this activity. The obsessive work passion is also linked to the integration of controlled and suppressed work which implies that the participation of a person in work is influenced by internal or external circumstances such as recognition or social approval (Vallerand, 2012). People with an intense enthusiasm for work feel that they are controlled by work and have to work, but they are not free to work. As a result, obsessive passion for work has a strong impact on work conflicts and non-working activities, which leads to results that are more unclear, inconsistent, and perhaps contradicting (Vallerand et al., 2003).

Table 1. Fourier's typology of passions

Charles Fourier believed that work is to carry the impression of desire because life is misery for those who do not have a fun job (Karlsson, 2015). ‌When passion is free, people are relieved - a fundamental idea of Charles Fourier (Karlsson, 2015). Table 1 demonstrate Charles’s three principles types and certain modifications of each passion. If passions grow, they bring together a new human and social community, a new society - harmony. The passive passions are aimed at pleasure and we can experience pleasure with our senses. Active passions sometimes termed as social passions which means dealing with people's relationships, where love and ambition are more vital for social development than friendship and the family or parental passion.

Table 1: Fourier's typology of passions

Passive passions (directed toward pleasure)	Active passions (directed toward social community)	Neutral passions (directed toward organizing)
Sight	Friendship	Principle of competition	Harmony
Hearing	Ambition	Principle of variety
Taste, smell, touch	Love, family feeling	Principle of combination

What is the relationship between work and passion?

Passion is a natural incentive towards a loved, highly important, and self-conceived activity in which a large amount of energy and time is spent (Vallerand et al., 2003). This definition of passion ensures that passionate behaviour is incorporated into the personality of the person. For example, someone with a passion for teaching identifies him or herself as a 'teacher' and not as someone who teaches. Being a teacher is part of who that individual is! Here, we are looking the relationship between work and passion from the three basic psychological needs perspectives.

Psychological needs

According to self-determination theory (SDT), there are three universally related factors to the psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) for psychological well-being and self-motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). These universal requirements can be viewed in the same manner that physiological demands are such as hunger, thirst, and sleep. That is if any of these demands are not met, health and motivation decreases. In contrast, if you feel independent, competent, and connected to others in a specific area of your life, for example, physical exercise, you are more likely to feel autonomously motivated to pursue that behaviour.

Three psychological needs:

Autonomy

• Making educated decisions based on your values and beliefs.
• Accepting responsibility for your choices and actions.
• Feel empowered and motivated (Kajfez & Matusovich, 2017).

Competence

• Getting the right level of challenge, for example, give you the opportunity to feel a sense of competence and not too easy or not too difficult.
• Feeling capable of taking on significant challenges (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
• Being self-assured in your capacity to perform tasks.
• Targets are believed to be achievable.

Relatedness

• Having a sense of belonging to others around you, for instance, family, friends, co-workers.
• A strong social support network (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
• Thinking as if other people are concerned for you.

Case Study: Mary is a single mother of two children aged 6, and 3. She lives in a government house. Mary used to work in a local supermarket but since having children, she has had to give up full-time work and doing casual basis work because she cannot manage work and caring for children at the same time. Mary's children are fussy eaters so she tends to give them unhealthy food such as chips, white bread, chicken nuggets which are cheaper too. When family are at home the children watch TV most of the time because there is nothing else to do. Mary gets tired of doing all household chores. Consider How satisfied Mary's psychological needs are in relation to the physical activity and diet for her children? What variable could be influencing Mary sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness?

Theoretical frameworks

There are various ideas that illustrate our understanding of passion, including education, training and learning (Burke et al., 2009). Employee motivation is critical to enhancing employee satisfaction and productivity at work. So, for employee motivation, this chapter focuses on the dualistic model of passion, self-determination theory, and cognitive evaluation theory.

The dualistic model of passion

The dualistic model of passion describes passion as a strong attraction to self-defining activities, objects or people that one love finds important, and invests considerable energy and time (Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand et al., 2010). The foundation of a passion can be oriented toward an activity ( e.g., playing the piano), a person (e.g., the romantic partner), or an object (a baseball card collection). The dualistic model of passion suggests that a harmonious passion comes from the self-internalisation of a person's identity activity (Vallerand et al., 2003). In particular, a harmonious passion arises when an activity is part of an individual's personality without any limits or restrictions involved with it and is freely selected for itself as extremely significant (Forest et al., 2012; Vallerand et al., 2003). The dualistic model of passion proposes that there are two types of passion; harmonious and obsessive, that might be recognised in terms of the internalisation of passionate activity into one's identity (Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand, 2012).

Harmonious passion comes from the personal internalisation through one's identity of activity representation (Vallerand et al., 2003). People with harmonious passion should be capable of concentrating completely on the job at hand and experiencing pleasant results both during, for example, the flow of work, positive affect, well-being and after the work engagement for example, job satisfaction. So, the passionate activity and other life activities of the individuals should have minimal or no conflict. In addition, people with a harmonious passion should be able to adjust to the environment and focus their attention and energy on other things that are needed if they are not allowed to engage in their passionate occupation. The individual controls the activity with harmonious passion and may select when to and when not to take part in the event.

In contrast, obsessive passion means an emotional stress that compels the person to work (Vallerand et al., 2003). With obsessive passion, the person also loves their work and believes him/her as part of its identity. However, they also feel compelled to engage because of the internal environment that come to control them for example, the need for social situations or self-esteem. People with an obsessive passion also can feel the overwhelming urge to participate in their activities, which they consider as crucial and delightful. The passion for work controls the individual. Obsessive passion has been associated with a number of adverse results, including burnout, misinformation, the role of conflict and the conflict between work and family (Forest et al., 2011; Vallerand et al., 2003).

Self-determination theory

Figure 3. Self-determination theory

The concept of self-determination theory is that has been used to explain motivation or why people do things they do. It suggests that people are motivated to grow and change by the three psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The concept of self-determination theory hypotheses two main categories of motivation; intrinsic and extrinsic; who we are and how we act (Deci & Ryan, 2008).

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is characterised as performing an action for its intrinsic satisfaction rather than just because of some indirect benefit (Ryan & Deci, 2000). As per the self-determination theory, we are motivated to maximise our potential and achieve optimal psychological, social, and behavioural functioning as a result of the dynamic interactions between our personality, sociocultural factors, and the environment (see figure 3). Research has shown that intrinsic motivation occurs when employees freely participate in work that they value and for which they feel appreciated and fairly compensated (Deci & Ryan, 2008).

So, how can you foster intrinsic motivation at work? Intrinsic motivation levels should be linked to self-determination theory performance via their impact on motivational persistence. Individuals who find a task entertaining or exciting should engage in it for extended periods of time, enduring beyond the point at which they are rewarded. For example, intrinsically motivated people tend to stick with tasks longer, resulting in higher academic success, work performance, and academic achievement among other things (Cerasoli et al., 2014).

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation is the desire to pursue an activity in order to obtain external incentives such as money prizes and work opportunities (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Extrinsic motivation influences a person's work and results and job performance (Deci & Ryan, 2008). The most prominent extrinsic motivators that influence employee attitudes and actions are income, bonuses, and job security (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Extrinsic motivation is involved in operant conditioning, which occurs when someone or something is conditioned to behave in a certain way as a result of a reward or consequence (Cerasoli et al., 2014). For example, consider your reason for reading a psychology book - motivation and emotion. Are you attempting to understand the subject in order to do well in your psychology unit? If this is the case, this is an example of extrinsic motivation because a good grade is an external reinforcement. If, on the other hand, you are curious about human behaviour, you are intrinsically driven as you are the driving factor for your motivation.

Ryan and Deci (2000) noted that fulfilling the requirements should be crucial for optimum functioning as well as for the growth of social and personal well-being. Therefore, the satisfaction of each one of these needs is essential. Furthermore, the fulfilment of three basic (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) requirements depends on a personal perception and not on an externally verified measure. For example, passing an exam that evaluates competency should not ensure that an individual has satisfied his or her personal requirement for competence in that field or in general.

1. Autonomy- It provides a feeling of willingness and a decision experience. In other words of philosophers such as Dworkin (1988), autonomy means that the greatest level of reflection endorses our activities (Kajfez & Matusovich, 2017). Intrinsic motivation is an example of autonomous motivation. When people are doing an activity because it is interesting, they do the activity voluntarily (e.g., I work because it is enjoyable).

Autonomy - Case study: 1 IT Google employees are allowed to spend 15% of their time working on their own projects. It has been extremely beneficial to them, as Google, Gmail, google scholar, are products of this program. This illustrates that when people are given autonomy, they tend to become more creative and imaginative rather than lazier.

2. Competency - Competency is a definition of the need for skill as mastery and a sense of effect if you do (Kajfez & Matusovich, 2017). Motivation is the will to make your environment and the result of the task feel successful and controlled. It can be addressed by assuring that everyone is assigned in the right position and is adequately trained. The abilities and strengths of your employee need to be expressed.

Competency - Case study:2 Athletic clothing professionals Nike work environment is focused on goal setting. Employees are particularly instructed on how to achieve goals, including their own personal aims that are irrelevant to the company's future. This type of targeted training is an excellent way of making employees feel competent and confident in their talents.

3. Relatedness - This relates to our demand for personal relationships and a sense of social group identity. It can be used by boosting workplace integration and embracing together wins and grieving losses. For example, in order to increase employees' performance, it would be good to encourage them through peer-to-peer mentoring in order to make sure that people of different background knowledge can train one another (Kajfez & Matusovich, 2017). This strengthens skills, promotes the sharing of knowledge and creates skilled workers.

Relatedness - Case study: 3 John is working in the accounting field. John is happy to enjoy working for his company for the last four years. John thinks his team are very helpful, they all are trustworthy. Trust will inspire John and his team to be honest and encourage everyone to be accountable for their actions.

Cognitive evaluation theory

Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) is a sub-theory of self-determination theory (Sheldon & Prentice, 2019). CET focuses on achievement and success while investigating how external factors affect intrinsic motivation in a process known as motivational "crowding out" (Ryan & Deci, 2000). CET focuses on two core needs; perceived competence and autonomy which are influenced by environmental and social circumstances (Cerasoli et al., 2014). It has been demonstrated that perceived competence combined with feelings of autonomy has a positive impact on intrinsic motivation. According to the cognitive evaluation theory, extrinsic motivation, which decreases autonomy, reduces intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

For example, when we look at a task, we assess it in terms of how well it fulfils our desires to feel competent and in charge (see figure 5). When a person has a stronger internal locus of control, they believe they have control over how they act. Where they have a stronger external locus of control, they will believe the situation or others have a bigger impact on what they do. CET further explains the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Cerasoli et al., 2014). For example, intrinsic motivators include achievement, responsibility, and competence (see figure 5).

Figure 5. Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation concept

Intrinsic motivation is as an internal strength that motivates people to work harder and appreciate their work (Cerasoli et al., 2014). People are motivated by the enjoyment of doing the work rather than by money or other external rewards. For example, let's assume there is a student who is motivated to do study psychology because she is interested. A student who is interested in a particular subject is going to do more study. As a result of that, her activities will be motivated by internal incentives. If, on the other hand, a student is merely obliged to study in order to satisfy her parent, she is motivated by extrinsic incentives.

Extrinsic motivators such as pay, promotion, working conditions, controlled by others. These are the objects that emerge from the environment and are under the control of someone else. Any of these can be a significant motivator for some people. People who are genuinely inspired are simply motivated by a desire for a sense of accomplishment or the desire to excel at something. They are concerned with performance rather than the environment. Extrinsically motivated people are more concerned with the incentives on offer.

Quiz

1 Self-determination theory refers to the amount of motivation:

	True
	False

2 The number of entrepreneurs agrees that success requires innovation:

	True
	False

3 Building an individual's skills is an intrinsic reward for work:

	True
	False

Conclusion

People are passionate about an activity, value it greatly and put energy and time into it. Essentially, work should be considered to become the object of passion as a vital element of one's personality.According to three motivational theories, it concludes that passion can be good or bad, depending on how they feel their passion. According to three motivational theories, it concludes that passion can be good or bad, depending on how the individual feels their passion. Harmonious passion defines a passion that is adaptive to other parts of life. Obsessive passion, however, portrays a maladaptive passion that is often at odds with other aspects of life. Intrinsically inspired individuals perceive their work to be intrinsically engaging and compelling. If we believe we can complete the goal, we will be innately motivated to complete the task without additional external rewards. However, extrinsic motivation frequently happens when people perform under stress, and the application of external rewards frequently promotes motivation.

See also

• Hypothalamus and motivation (Book chapter, 2017)
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs - motivation (Wikipedia)
• Motivation to learn (Book chapter, 2018)
• Motivation (Wikipedia)
• Personality psychology (Wikipedia)
• Workaholism motivation (Book chapter, 2015)

References

Baum, J. R., & Locke, E. A. (2004). The relationship of entrepreneurial traits, skill, and motivation to subsequent venture growth. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(4), 587–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.587

Burke, R. J., & Fiksenbaum, L. (2009). Work motivations, work outcomes, and health: Passion versus addiction. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(S2), 257–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9697-0

Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 980–1008. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035661

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801

Forest, J., Mageau, G. A., Sarrazin, C., & Morin, E. M. (2011). “Work is my passion”: The different affective, behavioural, and cognitive consequences of harmonious and obsessive passion toward work. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 28(1), 27–40. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.170

Forest, J., Mageau, G. A., Crevier-Braud, L., Bergeron, É., Dubreuil, P., & Lavigne, G. L. (2012). Harmonious passion as an explanation of the relation between signature strengths’ use and well-being at work: Test of an intervention program. Human Relations (New York), 65(9), 1233–1252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726711433134

Hakanen, J. J., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). Burnout and work engagement among teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 43(6), 495–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.11.001

Ho, V. T., & Astakhova, M. N. (2018). Disentangling passion and engagement: An examination of how and when passionate employees become engaged ones. Human Relations (New York), 71(7), 973–1000. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726717731505

Kajfez, R. L., & Matusovich, H. M. (2017). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness as motivators of graduate teaching assistants. Journal of Engineering Education (Washington, D.C.), 106(2), 245–272. https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20167

Karlsson, J. C. (2015). Work, passion, exploitation. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, 5(2), 3–. https://doi.org/10.19154/njwls.v5i2.4790

Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (2008). Early predictors of job burnout and engagement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 498–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.498

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

Sheldon, K. M., & Prentice, M. (2019). Self‐determination theory as a foundation for personality researchers. Journal of Personality, 87(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12360

Vallerand, R. J., Blanchard, C., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Ratelle, C., Léonard, M., Gagné, M., & Marsolais, J. (2003). Les Passions de l’Âme: On obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 756–767. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.756

Vallerand, R. J., Paquet, Y., Philippe, F. L., & Charest, J. (2010). On the role of passion for work in burnout: A process model. Journal of Personality, 78(1), 289–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00616.x

Vallerand, R. J. (2012). The role of passion in sustainable psychological well-being. Psychology of Well-Being, 2(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1186/2211-1522-2-1

External links

• Being passionate is the key to success (Linkedin.com)
• Be passionate - The importance of passion (ambition.com.au)
• Motivation ark by Steve Jobs (YouTube)
• On the psychology of passion: In search of what makes people's lives most worth living (selfdeterminationtheory.org)
• Resilience in the workplace (positivepsychology.com)
• Why passion is so critically important to happiness (gretchenrubin.com)