Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Voyeurism motivation

Voyeurism motivation:
What motivates voyeurism?

Overview

edit
 
Figure 1. Children peeping through a church door in Mexico.

2020 marked the 60th anniversary of Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho", a film that notoriously was shocking to audiences at the time of release for it's[grammar?] sexual and violent content (Rebello, 2010). Amongst the plethora of taboos touched upon by Hitchcock in the film, a character is displayed having curiosities that manifest in voyeuristic behaviours. Now, 60 years later, and with unprecedented novel methods for personal inter-connectivity, society advances into unprecedented curiosity. From the comfort of their homes, hackers can gain remote access to files on personal computers (Schifreen, 1994) including photos and videos (O'Connor, 2014), access banking information (Adham, Azodi, Desmedt, & Karaolis, 2013), control smart electronic devices in a home (Yoshigoe, Dai, Abramson, and Jacobs, 2015), and even gain access to private webcams or home security cameras (Vlajic, Zhou, 2018), peeking in to the private lives of unaware victims. This article assists in the growing conceptualisation of voyeurism, and the motivations that lead voyeurs to engage in privacy-invading practices, whether criminal or not.

Focus questions:

  • What is voyeurism?
  • What motivates voyeuristic behaviour?
  • What are the different types of voyeuristic behaviours?
  • How is voyeurism treated?

What is voyeurism?

edit

Voyeurism is a large group of behaviours that centre around the principle[grammar?] motivation of viewing either private material, or an individual in a private moment without their knowledge (Figure 1.). Whilst voyeuristic behaviour can be non-sexual (Rye, & Meaney, 2007), voyeuristic behaviour is more often associated with paraphilic behaviour (Twohig, and Furnham, 1998) such as; peeping tom (Feigelman, 1974), dogging (Bell, 2006), upskirting (Gillespie, 2008), candaulism (Di Lorenzo, Gorea, Longo, & Ribolsi, 2018), and scopophilia (Metzl, 2004), amongst others.

What motivates voyeuristic behaviour?

edit

A 1965 literature review of voyeurism (Gebhard et al.,) noted that research in the field was severely lacking, with only few theories presented on the motivations of voyeuristic behaviour stemming from psychoanalytic and behaviourist ideals. Over half a century later, Wood (2019) acknowledged the persistence of these gaps in the literature, and posited that current research leads to multiple theories for voyeuristic motivation; a behaviourist view, a psychoanalytic view, and views emerging with novel definitions. Due to the lack of clarity around the definition of voyeurism (Yalom, 1960), it is important to analyse the motivations for voyeurism by first separating it conceptually into non-sexual and sexual voyeurism.

Non-sexual voyeurism

edit

The vast majority of research on voyeurism entails a definition involving seeking sexual pleasure from observing something private (Hall, 2018). Modern forms of entertainment continue to push societies[grammar?] understanding of privacy, and with it, the implied sexual motivations behind voyeuristic acts (Blazer, 2006)

Social media

edit
  • In their thesis on the matter, Su (2012) posits a social needs and surveillance-based motivational facet for voyeuristic "friend peeping" through Facebook. Measured through an online survey of users (N = 156), the author demonstrated moderate positive correlations between voyeuristic tendencies on facebook and both social identity and social comparison factors. Stronger correlations are also demonstrated between voyeuristic tendencies on facebook and the social factors of surveillance (Lyon, 2007), uncertainty reduction (Berger & Calabrese, 1975), and the social interpersonal factor of uses and gratifications (Katz et al., 1973).
  • Mantymaki, & Islam (2014) discuss social networking sites as facilitators of voyeuristic and exhibitionistic behaviours, utilising the uses and gratifications theory as a basis for their argument. The researchers note in analysis of a sample of Facebook users (N = 289) that users of the site both produce and consume content that contributes to "social media", and it's this prosumer behaviour that enables gratification for the users[grammar?] voyeuristic or exhibitionistic tendencies. Whilst voyeuristic users experience greater gratification from the consumption side of social media, exhibitionistic users are gratified by the production aspect of social media.
  • Wang, & Chou (2019) propose a model of motivation for online live-streaming viewership. Whilst this model in itself does not seek to explain the motivation of voyeurism, it notes voyeurism as a motivational factor for those watching online live-streams. Through an online survey (N = 374), researchers ascertained factors that were significant to a viewers motivation to watch a livestream, of which voyeurism was identified as one of four core motivations to engage in the behaviour.

Reality television

edit
  • Baruh (2010) notes a positive relationship between voyeurism and reality television consumption. Borrowing from Lacan and Miller's conceptualisation of voyeurism (1998), this article argues that viewers of reality television do so to "seek out what they cannot otherwise see". This form of voyeurism, titled by the authors as "Trait voyeurism", allows the voyeur to engage in voyeuristic behaviour in a safer, more socially acceptable way, whilst still satisfying a desire to gain a private insight into the lives of others.
  • Bagdasarov and associates (2010) examine the relationships between viewers[grammar?] voyeuristic tendencies and consumption habits of voyeuristic television content, employing the uses and gratifications theory as a framework. Results from a survey (N = 674) that measured participants[grammar?] viewing habits, sensation seeking, and levels of voyeurism are utilised to create a "Voyeurism Television Consumption Index", or "VTCI". The authors demonstrate a moderate positive relationship between the VTCI and type of media chosen, with higher scores on the VTCI corresponding to a preference for more voyeuristic, reality television styled content.

Sexual voyeurism

edit
 
Figure 2. Barack Obama looking through the Oval Office door peephole

Whilst acknowledged as a vastly under-reported crime due to its perception as nuisance behaviour, sexual (or pathological) voyeurism is estimated to be the most prevalent sexual criminal behaviour (Långström, & Seto, 2006).

Behaviourist approaches

edit

The behaviourist approach posits learned associations between strong, instinct based stimulus (sexual motivation), and reinforcement thats[grammar?] either autoerotic (masturbatory/fantasy), sought out (active voyeur), or accidental (unintentionally being a voyeur) (Laws, & Marshall, 2003)

Laws and Marshall's conditioning theory (1990)

edit
  • Presents a theoretical structure for a behaviourist-style acquisition and self-reinforcement of deviant sexual behaviour[grammar?]. Acquisition may occur accidentally, by a chance initial exposure to a deviant behaviour, and then reinforced through autoerotic stimulation.
  • The voyeur may be exposed to a private moment unintentionally, [grammar?] this moment then causes an initial instinctual sexual arousal in the voyeur. The voyeur then, through masturbation, mentally recalls or seeks out the same instinctual sexual arousal, creating a form of feedback loop for the learned sexual behaviour.

Opportunistic motivation

edit
  • Långström (2010) discusses possible opportunistic motivations behind voyeurism in a review of literature on the topic. Drawing from Rye, & Meaney (2007), the authors[grammar?] assertion seeks to distinguish between a serial voyeur and an incidental one. Analysis of Rye, & Meaney's study (N = 318) found that 74% of women and 84% of men questioned for the study would watch an attractive person getting undressed or two attractive people having sex, if they as viewers were not likely to be caught. When the researchers manipulated the chance of being caught from none, to being caught a quarter of the time, willingness to engage in the voyeuristic activity fell dramatically (36% of women, 61% of men). These findings demonstrate possible opportunistic motivations for voyeuristic behaviour, that is to say, given the opportunity to engage in the voyeuristic activity without being caught, people are more likely to be motivated to engage in the activity (Figure 2.)
  • Långström compares the previous study with Gebhard et al's., 1965 study on voyeuristic behaviour. The study (N = 56) demonstrated similar opportunistic motivations as found with Rye, & Meaney, but in a comparative analysis of voyeurs, also suggests a dichotomic split between opportunistic voyeurs and serial (labelled in the study as "patterned") voyeurs. Serial voyeurs were more likely plan and seek out voyeuristic experiences, whilst opportunistic voyeurs were more likely to engage when the activity was solely incidental.

Psychoanalytic approaches

edit
 
Figure 3. Sigmund Freud candidly captured in a private moment

The psychoanalytic approach discusses voyeuristic motivation as stemming from dysfunction in sexual drive development, or as a defence mechanism of the psyche against more distressing impulses. Through both postulations, the primary motive for voyeuristic behaviour is coping or compensation, as the psyche of the voyeur treats the behaviour as correct instead of "normal" sexual behaviour (Blechner, 2016).

Fragmentation

edit
  • Smith (1976) notes in review of Freud (1938), that voyeurism may emerge from a fragmentation of an infants[grammar?] developing "sexual instinct". Part of the conceptualised sexual instinct may independently develop into a drive competitive to the primary sex drive.
  • Freud posits a model of sexuality that develops from infancy as a conglomerate of separate "partial impulses", [grammar?] these partial impulses may consist of behaviours linked to looking, exposing oneself, or engaging in acts of cruelty. Partial impulses should serve as normal facilitators for foreplay in adult sexuality, but if a fixation occurs on a partial impulse during sexual development, that impulse may "fragment" from the primary sex drive (ultimately to copulate).
  • Fragmentation results in a primary sex drive which aims to copulate, and a secondary drive associated with sexual instinct, which has as its ultimate goal to fulfil the fixated partial impulse. The voyeur for example has a primary sex drive, but the secondary associated drive is a fragmented partial impulse of "looking" behaviour, which has grown alongside sexual development.

Defence

edit
  • Smith [year?] then notes in review of Freud (1924), that voyeurism may emerge as a means of defence against other, or worse impulses, entering the conscious mind.
  • Freud (Figure 3.) posits a concession of sorts, in which an instinctual impulse may be so strong that the ego is unable to repress the instinct in its entirety, allowing a small portion of the impulse to be expressed.
  • In combination with the fragmentation framework suggested by Freud, the ego represses the larger portion of the instinct (primary drive to copulate), whilst the smaller portion of the instinct (secondary drive to fulfil the partial impulse) is conceded to conscious expression as a compromise to keep the larger portion repressed.
  • The voyeur in this argument expresses voyeuristic behaviour as a means of maintaining stronger sexual impulses repressed, [grammar?] in this way voyeuristic behaviour is a form of defence for the psyche.
 
Figure 4. A peeping tom looks through the crack in a door

Courtship disorder theory

edit
  • Freund, & Blanchard(1986) argue that sexual courtship comprises four phases for a human male;
    1. Location [missing something?] an appraisal of potential partner
    2. Pre-tactile interactions (smiling, looking, talking to, posing for a potential partner)
    3. Tutile, or tactile, interaction (touching, foreplay, hugging, kissing)
    4. Genital union (copulation)
  • Disturbances in the formation or execution of the normal courtship may result in dysfunctional courtship.
  • The voyeur in the model is motivated due to dysfunctional courtship, with distorted sexual focus being put on the first phase of normal courtship (Location and appraisal of potential partner).

Motivation-faciliation[spelling?] model of sexual offending

edit
  • Seto (2019) argues for the motivation-facilitation model of sexual offending, which ascribes motivation of voyeuristic behaviour to
    1. The traits of the paraphilia (some paraphilias are more likely to be acted upon than others)
    2. A high sex drive (individuals with higher sex drives are more likely to engage in excessive sexualised behaviours to satiate the drive)
    3. Intense mating effort (a strong sexual focus on acquisition and engagement with novel sexual partners, rather than a current partner)
  • The model notes that individuals who are already sexually interested in voyeurism, and match the criteria for items 2 and 3, are more likely to be motivated to engage in voyeuristic sexual behaviour (Figure 4.)

Digital voyeurism

edit
  • Holmes, Tewksbury, & Holmes (1998) discuss the, then novel, adoption of the home computer as either a motivator for voyeuristic crime, or a form of "safety valve" against it, allowing potential voyeurs to live out fantasies from home.
  • Voyeurs may access voyeuristic material online, utilising the material for autoerotic stimulation, or to facilitate engagement in fantasy.
  • Access and utilisation of voyeuristic material online may motivate the voyeur to seek out the behaviour in "real life", but it also may act as a preventative measure, stopping the individual from engaging with the voyeuristic material beyond the private confines of cyber space.

Case Study

  • A student at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Anuj Parekh was arrested in 2016 after police discovered he had drilled holes into the flooring and walls of an abandoned apartment in order to spy on neighbouring residents.
  • The holes created were large enough that he could slip fingers through in order to manipulate blinds, or fit a camera lens in to film
  • The voyeur's behaviour was only discovered when one of the victims noticed Anuj's fingers move a curtain, and they saw the voyeur's eye looking back at them through a hole he had made (Demmitt, 2016).
  • Although Anuj was found with laptops, cameras, hard drives, and drilling materials, he ultimately only had to serve 25 days in jail for the crime of peeping into an occupied dwelling (Gangloff, 2016)

Quiz

edit

1 Voyeurism is comprised of only the behaviour of spying on someone undressing

True
False

2 Voyeurs are easily profiled, due to distinct identifiable characteristics

True
False

3 One theory suggests voyeurism can initially develop by an accidental first experience

True
False

4 Trait voyeurism is a type of sexual voyeurism

True
False

5 Voyeurism is best explained solely by the psychoanalytic perspective

True
False

6 The circumstances around Anuj Parekh's arrest are a good example of incidental or opportunistic voyeurism

True
False


Voyeurism treatment

edit

When analysing voyeurism in terms of motivation, it is necessary to acknowledge historical and modern treatments for voyeurism. Historical treatments give more perspective into what was believed to be effective at changing a voyeurs[grammar?] motivational drive, whilst modern treatments demonstrate promise though pharmacological and psychotherapeutic means.

Historical treatments

edit

Historically, voyeurism has been believed to be possibly treated through;

  • Hypnosis (Alexander, 1967), to target conditional associations.
  • Aversion therapy (Stoudenmire, 1973), as a means to extinguish the behaviour.
  • Psychoanalytic therapy (Rosen, 1968), to address underlying sexual malformation, or to guide proper sexual formation of the adolescent.
  • Heterosexual normal sexual education (Kanfer and Phillips, 1970), who believed paraphilia emerged from lack of understanding and confidence for normal heterosexual behaviour.

Modern treatments

edit

[Provide more detail]

Treated as a form of OCD

edit
  • Abouesh & Clayton (1999) discuss paroxetine as an effective treatment for voyeurism, classing it alongside other obsessive compulsive disorders.
  • Researchers note paroxetine as an effective drug in reducing obsessive compulsive behaviour, and argue that voyeuristic behaviours are motivated by the same means as obsessive compulsive disorders.
  • A case study of a voyeur treated with paroxetine is analysed, demonstrating reduction in voyeuristic behaviours.

Biopsychosocial approach

edit
  • Ramsey, Carter, & Walton, (2020) demonstrate in review of multiple programs, the efficacy of a combined approach that addresses psychological motivations through therapy and behaviour modification, alongside pharmacological assistance in "severe" cases, to reduce recidivism for voyeurism in convicted criminal populations.
  • Researchers argue for a unified approach to voyeurism treatment, with motivation to engage in the paraphilic behaviours stemming from both physical and psychological sources in the individual.
  • Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor's[grammar?] (or SSRI's[grammar?]), including paroxetine, are used to treat aspects of obsession and compulsion towards voyeuristic behaviour.
  • Behavioural Activation Therapy (Proeve, & Chamberlain, 2017) and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (Duff, 2018) are used to engage the voyeur in different motivational drives, and re-learn associations and appropriate response behaviours accordingly.

Conclusion

edit

Voyeuristic acts evolve along society's propensity towards indulgence of curiosity as entertainment, with modern definitions surpassing the historical viewpoint of the voyeur as solely driven by sexually deviant motivation.

Prototypicality of the voyeur cannot be ascertained within the current literature, [grammar?] further insights are required to better understand those likely to engage in voyeuristic behaviours, insights including;

  • Are there differences in expression of these behaviours between sexes?
  • Are there differences in expression of these behaviours across cultures?
  • Just as novel methods of sexual engagement have emerged with new technology, how have these voyeuristic behaviours changed at different historical times?
  • Can these differences generate better understanding of motivational commonalities for the behaviour, or highlight diversity within its motivational origin?

Literature surrounding the topic, from nascent conceptualisation to contemporary review, highlights a lack of focus beyond simple terms of definition for voyeurism; motivation for voyeuristic acts, treatment targeting voyeuristic motivations, and programs that target recidivism of the criminally voyeuristic are all under novel academic scrutiny, and the result is a semantic transmutation of voyeurism that provides fresh heuristic value to the field of research. Further research is still necessary to improve both scientific and lay understanding of voyeuristic motivation, but through new lenses of definition, novel approaches allow for more comprehensive research in the field.

See also

edit

References

edit
Abouesh, A., & Clayton, A. (1999). Compulsive voyeurism and exhibitionism: A clinical response to paroxetine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 28(1), 23-30. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018737504537

Adham, M., Azodi, A., Desmedt, Y., & Karaolis, I. (2013, April). How to attack two-factor authentication internet banking. In International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security (pp. 322-328). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39884-1_27

Alexander, L. (1967). Psychotherapy of sexual deviation with the aid of hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 9(3), 181-183. https://doi.org/10.1080/00029157.1967.10402547

Bagdasarov, Z., Greene, K., Banerjee, S. C., Krcmar, M., Yanovitzky, I., & Ruginyte, D. (2010). I am what I watch: Voyeurism, sensation seeking, and television viewing patterns. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 299-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151003734995

Baruh, L. (2010). Mediated voyeurism and the guilty pleasure of consuming reality television. Media Psychology, 13(3), 201-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2010.502871

Bell, D. (2006). Bodies, technologies, spaces: on ‘dogging’. Sexualities, 9(4), 387-407. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460706068040

Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some exploration in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1975.tb00258.x

Blazer, S. M. (2006). Rear window ethics: Domestic privacy versus public responsibility in the evolution of voyeurism. The Midwest Quarterly, 47(4), 379. (UMI No. 1472855)

Blechner, M. J. (2016). Psychoanalysis and sexual issues. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 52(4), 502-546. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.2016.1225190

Burton, D. L., Duty, K. J., & Leibowitz, G. S. (2011). Differences between sexually victimized and nonsexually victimized male adolescent sexual abusers: Developmental antecedents and behavioral comparisons. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 20(1), 77-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2011.541010

Demmit, J. (2016). Blacksburg peeping Tom case: Holes drilled in apartment wall, according to warrant. The Roanoke Times. Retrieved from https://roanoke.com/news/crime/blacksburg/blacksburg-peeping-tom-case-holes-drilled-in-apartment-wall-according/article_09cb9da9-ffb3-5d1b-93a7-6cbc9697b05e.html

Di Lorenzo, G., Gorea, F., Longo, L., & Ribolsi, M. (2018). Paraphilia and paraphilic disorders. In Sexual Dysfunctions in Mentally Ill Patients (pp. 193-213). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68306-5_18

Doyle, T. (2009). Privacy and perfect voyeurism. Ethics and Information Technology, 11(3), 181-189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-009-9195-9

Duff, S. (2018). Outcomes and Discussion. In Voyeurism(pp. 97-101). Palgrave Pivot, Cham. http://doi-org-443.webvpn.fjmu.edu.cn/10.1007/978-3-319-97160-5_9

Feigelman, W. (1974). Peeping: The pattern of voyeurism among construction workers. Urban Life and Culture, 3(1), 35-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124167400300102

Freud, S. (1924). Neurose und Psychose.Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse, 10(1), 1-5. Retrieved from https://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=IZPA.010.0001A

Freud, S. (1938). Three contributions to the theory of sex. In The Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud, Random House, New York.

Freund, K., & Blanchard, R. (1986). The concept of courtship disorder. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 12(2), 79-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926238608415397

Furnham, A., & Haraldsen, E. (1998). Lay theories of etiology and “cure” for four types of paraphilia: Fetishism; pedophilia; sexual sadism; and voyeurism. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54(5), 689-700. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199808)54:5<689::AID-JCLP15>3.0.CO;2-9

Gangloff, M. (2016). Virginia Tech student found guilty, gets time served in Peeping Tom case. The Roanoke Times. Retrieved from https://richmond.com/news/virginia/virginia-tech-student-found-guilty-gets-time-served-in-peeping/article_3497f13f-b3ca-58f5-a329-13cc96ad7ed9.html

Gebhard, P. H. (1965). Gagnon, JH. Pomeroy, WB, & Christenson, CV Sex offenders: An analysis of types. New York: Harper & Row.

Gillespie, A. (2008). 'Upskirts' and'down-blouses': voyeurism and the law. Criminal Law Review, (a), 370-382.

Green, S. P. (2018). To see and be seen: Reconstructing the law of voyeurism and exhibitionism. Am. Crim. L. Rev., 55, 203. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2983894)

Hall, Kim E., "Seminar in Paraphilic Disorders" (2018). Educational Specialist. 127. Retrieved from https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/edspec201019/127

Holmes, R. M., Tewksbury, R., & Holmes, S. T. (1998). Hidden JPGs: A functional alternative to voyeurism. The Journal of Popular Culture, 32(3), 17-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1998.3203_17.x

Hopkins, T. A., Green, B. A., Carnes, P. J., & Campling, S. (2016). Varieties of intrusion: Exhibitionism and voyeurism. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 23(1), 4-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2015.1095138

Kanfer, F. H., & Phillips, J. S. (1970). Learning foundations of behavior therapy. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(72)80059-5

Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. The public opinion quarterly, 37(4), 509-523. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2747854

Lacan, J., & Miller, J. A. (1998). The four fundamental concepts of psycho-analysis. Retrieved from https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/19108273/pvp_erratum.pdf?1340046353=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DThe_four_fundamental_concepts_of_psycho.pdf&Expires=1603012831&Signature=CMYyiH~wtOKExAKfAclNxrkUP8wHTpYetqQuySF989M9Hlv3YJNnN5W42oF36gJDzeljtGNrdicbPEeqdGDKAf1bWEkh8FCHePErK8wGBzn0OzrGfqAcj8yEYsHHEMFwtK0rLxo3JXKc6AZ3v3HfEIWzpmFazCH2QmjI6JuK3MUGd7LdF920qTz-S0b8fgc00uVWjt0JGVhCGM~ZDeLW3vxF5qYk38yJBubxJXB~fVucJF71wj0kBMKOPiEtoAEfx7-AYpJYt3-SeK1zMMCLp~Aq~WgY~Bx0i1uYeBeBjVDCgYJXxweTtyPT4PK9pa0yAm3SN~urG2qkBnLJDnhqEg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA

Laws, D. R., & Marshall, W. L. (1990). A conditioning theory of the etiology and maintenance of deviant sexual preference and behavior. In Handbook of sexual assault (pp. 209-229). Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0915-2_13

Laws, D. R., & Marshall, W. L. (2003). A brief history of behavioral and cognitive behavioral approaches to sexual offenders: Part 1. Early developments. Sexual abuse: a journal of research and treatment, 15(2), 75-92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022325231175

Långström, N. (2010). The DSM diagnostic criteria for exhibitionism, voyeurism, and frotteurism. Archives of sexual behavior, 39(2), 317-324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9577-4

Långström, N., & Seto, M. C. (2006). Exhibitionistic and voyeuristic behavior in a Swedish national population survey. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9042-6

Longo, R. E., & Groth, A. N. (1983). Juvenile sexual offenses in the histories of adult rapists and child molesters. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 27(2), 150-155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X8302700207

Lyon, D. (2007). Surveillance studies: an overview. Area, 40 (2), 293-294. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4762.2008.830_1.x

Mantymaki, M., & Islam, A. K. M. (2014). Voyeurism and exhibitionism as gratifications from prosuming social networking sites. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1701.6967

Metzl, J. (2004). From scopophilia to Survivor: A brief history of voyeurism. Textual Practice, 18(3), 415-434. https://doi.org/10.1080/09502360410001732935

O'Connor, L. (2014). Celebrity nude photo leak: Just one more reminder that privacy does not exist online and legally, there’s not much we can do about it. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/ggu_law_review_blog/30

Proeve, M., & Chamberlain, P. (2017). Paraphilic disorders.Abnormal Psychology in Context: The Australian and New Zealand Handbook, 266. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316182444.024

Ramsay, L., Carter, A. J., & Walton, J. S. (2020). Contemporary Programs Designed for the Tertiary Prevention of Recidivism by People Convicted of a Sexual Offense: A Review, and the UK Perspective. The Wiley Handbook of What Works with Sexual Offenders: Contemporary Perspectives in Theory, Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention, 185-199. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119439325.ch11

Rebello, S. (2010). Alfred Hitchcock and the making of Psycho. Open Road Media. ISBN 145320122X, 9781453201220

Rosen, I. (1968). Treatment of Sexual Deviations: The Basis of Psychotherapeutic Treatment of Sexual Deviation. https://doi.org/10.1177/003591576806100826

Rye, B. J., & Meaney, G. J. (2007). Voyeurism: It is good as long as we do not get caught. International Journal of Sexual Health, 19(1), 47-56.https://doi.org/10.1300/J514v19n01_06

Schifreen, R. (1994). How hackers do it. Network Security, 1994(10), 17-19.https://doi.org/10.1016/1353-4858(94)90071-X

Seto, M. C. (2019). The motivation-facilitation model of sexual offending. Sexual Abuse, 31(1), 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217720919

Seto, M. C., & Kuban, M. (1996). Criterion-related validity of a phallometric test for paraphilic rape and sadism. Behaviour research and therapy, 34(2), 175-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00056-9

Simon, R. I. (1997). Video voyeurs and the covert videotaping of unsuspecting victims: psychological and legal consequences. Journal of Forensic Science, 42(5), 884-889. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS14224J

Smith, R. S. (1976). Voyeurism: A review of literature. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 5(6), 585-608. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01541221

Stoudenmire, J. (1973). Behavioral treatment of voyeurism and possible symptom substitution. Psychotherapy 10: 328-330. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087612

Su, P. J. (2012). Mediated voyeurism on social networking sites: The possible social needs and potential motivations of the voyeurs on Facebook. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.rit.edu/theses/3093/

Twohig, F., & Furnham, A. (1998). Lay beliefs about overcoming four sexual paraphilias: Fetishism, paedophilia, sexual sadism and voyeurism. Personality and Individual Differences, 24(2), 267-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00157-8

Vlajic, N., & Zhou, D. (2018). IoT as a land of opportunity for DDoS hackers. Computer, 51(7), 26-34.https://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/MC.2018.3011046

Wang, C. C., & Feng-Sha, C. H. O. U. (2019). Audiences’ Motives for Watching Live Video Streaming. Contemporary Management Research, 15(4), 273-285. https://doi.org/10.7903/cmr.20058

Wood, C. (2019). "Voyeurism was my comfort blanket". An investigation into the experiences and needs of adult males with a conviction for voyeurism Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/openview/a5abbb67628b5da9ad788ec6f854da04/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

Yalom, I. D. (1960). Aggression and forbiddenness in voyeurism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 3(3), 305-319. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1960.01710030091012

Yoshigoe, K., Dai, W., Abramson, M., & Jacobs, A. (2015). Overcoming invasion of privacy in smart home environment with synthetic packet injection. In 2015 TRON Symposium (TRONSHOW) (pp. 1-7). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/TRONSHOW.2014.7396875

edit