Scientific Method for Wikimedians/Scientific Facts

This chapter is based on the previous chapter Knowledge & its types. Thus, this chapter won't be clear without finishing the previous chapter firstly.

In chapter 1, we described the knowledge regarding its definition, its types and its sources. We also found that facts are a type of knowledge. This chapter is dedicated to facts especially scientific ones, so it is expected to be able to understand what a fact is how do we create it and how do we handle it

Finally, in this chapter, you will introduce the concept of the research method, preparing you for Chapter 3, which is dedicated to research methodologies.

In the beginning, we will approach facts as pieces of knowledge, and, as in the previous chapter, we will interpret the word using the following approach: First, we'll look up the word in three different dictionaries to get a feel of what it means.

Second, we will examine the word from an etymological standpoint, as etymology refers to the study of the origins of words. Finally, if you have already completed Chapter 1 and all of its activities, you are familiar with this strategy. Following that, we will discuss the evolution of facts from two separate perspectives: simple facts and complicated ones. producing simple facts is something our minds do all the time; in this course, we will simply teach you how. On the other hand, producing complicated facts is a difficult task.

First, we must verify whether or not the simple facts are valid. Then, using a well-defined method, scientists developed the concept to become a global scientific law. This is not an easy or quick process, and it is also not linear; it may take centuries to arrive at the stable form of a complex packet. Finally, we will discuss general notes on scientific facts, focusing on the distinction between facts and scientific laws.

Facts as knowledge

Going back to chapter one, there is no clear difinition for the word "knowledge", however, there are several aspects for it. Using these aspects we can describe knowledge visually on a multi-dimensional spectrum called the radar diagram.

As mentioning previously, facts are a specific type of knowledge. However, if I say that facts are knowledge, this does not mean that knowledge is always a "fact". Knowledge is much larger than just a fact. it can include feelings, for example, if I say I am afraid. This is a knowledge, you can get on my current status, but is it a fact? well if we agree that fact is our best understanding of reality, then, simply the answer is "no, this is just a feeling I have it right now I might also be the only one who is afraid". This is a knowledge and not a fact, thus we agreed that facts are related to reality, but when reality is fixed, facts are changeable.

Reality is what exists as it is even if we are not here or there is a reality will always be the same it's independent from us on the other hand our understanding of the world develop as our Technologies and tools do the example of the shape of the Earth was used to reflect this while reality is that Earth is nearly spherical our understanding of that developed over the year, from being flat to reach the current in fact we have today. For sure science can help it can enhance our understanding of the concept thanks to science properties the understood facts are testable and we can review them and develop them systematically.

Definitions of Facts

let's move to the definitions of facts in the common sense the inter effect is read as follows in the Oxford Learners dictionaries:

“ it is a thing that is known to be true especially when it can be proved ”

In Cambridge Dictionary it reads as follow:

“ it is something that is known to have happened or to exist especially something for which proof exists or about which there is information ”

finally in MerriamWebster Dictionary it reads:

“ something that has actual existence or a piece of information presented as having objective reality ”

In order to analyze what we have read we need to group the definitions first, starting with Oxford and Cambridge dictionaries, they shared the same idea the word known is repeated in the two definitions. Here it does not refer to the personal knowledge or understanding we have seen that personal emotions are not facts rather it refers to a collective knowledge where a group of people agree on something.

It might be wrong or not valid, but this is not important in this context. When people believed that Earth is flat this was the fact for centuries.

so the first thing we have learned here is; facts are what people agree upon.

the second part of the two definitions add a special value to the fact, please note the use of the word proved in the first definition and the proof in the second. Proof means a physical evidence or an agreement or an argument used to establish the truth of a statement. Thus, facts have more value when they are proven.

However to prove something; you need a way if the way, if is systematic it is where the science shine. However, if the way is dogma it's where the propaganda will shine. So the second thing we have learned is that facts can be generated using science.

thirdly the second definition has the word reality in it. If we review it again we can see that in order of the knowledge to become a fact, it needs to be presented as having an objective reality. This is different from being valid.

The definition says: if you present the knowledge you have as an explanation of reality and you got somehow to convince people with that your piece of knowledge is now a fact. It might be wrong, but there is no need for the fact to be correct.

once more this is called a propaganda it's a kind of facts mainly used to manipulate people. and make them believe invalid statements.

Etymology of the word facts

the word fact itself can be traced back to the old English it was used in this spelling since the 16th century; however, the word can also be traced back to Latin through old French.

For the Roman the word factum means an event and occurence or an achievement. Interestingly people need to agree on what is an achievement, and what is not. for sure again, the importance is that people agree on the same thing and not on the validity of it.

the word can also be traced back to a proto-indo-european root, the word "dhe", it could be pronounced "the". it meant to set or to put unfortunately all the word derived from it has changed a lot in the years and it's hard to see the clear relationship with the today English use of the word. However, linguistic agree that the famous word do and also affect and affair, all share the same origin.

back to the modern use of the word:

• In the 16th century, it was used to mean an action or a thing done and for sure people agreed on it.
• In the renossainace period, the word was used to refer to different concepts, a truth known by observation or authentic testimony
• By the 19th century it was used to mean the stark realities of existence.

so we can clearly see that as we advance in our understanding of reality the word fact is used to reflect the reality itself

Origin of the word facts

Putting everything we have learned together, we can find that, facts come from two sources, consensus and reasoning.

• consensus means what a group of people agree on. What is important here is that people agree on the fact; not that the fact is valid or not. the more people agree on the fact the more it becomes strong and accepted. Examples in these categories are: all human laws and agreement they are fact because people support it when they don't the law will be ignored and changed. Having slavery as an example; it was a fact in almost everywhere in the planet throughout the history of the humankind. There were laws to organize it, and protect it. it was accepted worldwide. Nowadays, it is not. Simply our social and moral systems have advanced, and today, people refuse it and thus the fact is no more.

languages and the grammar are also a great example of facts based on consensus, because people might name things differently, or they might express themselves differently. Grammar, is the law that governs the language. is also different. As people dies in new generations will advance, using different vocabularies or ways to express themselves. so, languages will be always in continuous move.

• Reasoning means the use of logic to create new knowledge, scientific facts are the results of this.

so back to the Earth shape example:

• we can now see that when people said:"the Earth is flat" it was a fact achieved by consensus.
• on the other hand when we say that "Earth is spherical or nearly spherical." we arise to this conclusion using reason

Disadvantages of origins of the word fact

to finish with the original question let me show you what are the disadvantages of both origins

consensus

1. the first and clear disadvantage is that people might agree on a false statement, we have already highlighted this point before, please check it up.
2. Fallacy means a mistaken belief especially one based on non-solid arguments. The fallacy we are referring to here is called appeal to popularity. This means that people tend to believe that something or a statement is true, just because there are fans or supporter for it. consensus work that way too. Thus, people will believe in the fact not because it's true or valid, and not because they have prove it right. But rather because there are other people who support it.
3. The consensus is not systematic we agree that science is a way or a system to create testable knowledge. we can safely assume that consensus is not scientific.

Reasoning

1. Logic is hard, and if you do not master it well. It can easily mislead you. So, being complex is the first disadvantage of reasoning.
2. Reasoning is hard to understand, next in this chapter and in the next chapter we will see that in order to use reasoning you need to follow a method. This method include several steps, and if you are not familiar with it. It's hard to understand why we are doing this.

Questioning

• Question 1: what is the fact?

• The simple answer is: "It differs based on the domain, it has different definitions in: philosophy, law, history, and science.

then, to reconstruct the question again now

• the question will be: what is the scientific fact?

• There are several definitions. They all agree on what the concept is, but they differ in style. Personally, I prefer the definition proposed by Barry Gower in his book scientific method a historical and philosophical introduction.

the definition reads and I'm not quoting word to word:

“ it's an objective and verifiable observation intended to explain or interpret natural or human-made phenomena ”

why I like it is because it includes four key words: objective, verifiable, observation and human made phenomena.

• Objective means that the scientist has no personal interference with the fact. as the scientist must be neutral, and follows the fact wherever it takes him.
• Verifiable means it's testable. anyone with needed tools and skills can check if it is valid or not.
• Observation and human-made phenomenon are two ways of creating knowledge we have discussed them fully in chapter one

Classifications of facts

before we finish this section, I would like to highlight the classification of facts. We agreed that facts are knowledge thus we can use the five axes radar diagram to study it with no problem. but keep in mind, that of five axes of the spectrum crediability and complexity are vital to describe the facts. we can classify facts based on the both of the both of them.

Time basis

In this classification, we study the relationship between credibility and time. Facts can be constant in time, they are fixed and independent from the time flow. and they are valid regardless when we look at them. noting that this does not mean that they do not change, NO, all facts are changeable. However, the reason behind the change is not time, it can be a discovery, or a new calculation. Example of these facts is: "if I say gold is a metal." this is true based on our definitions of what gold, and what metals are. If the definitions do not change gold will stay a metal, no matter how much time you wait for it. On the other hand, facts can change in time, this is true when they have a changing value. For example, if I say Joe Biden is the U.S president. This fact is valid now, however if we look 10 years back or 10 years forward, this fact is not valid. The value of this fact is valid in a specific period of time. Outside this range, it's simply not valid.

Structural Basis

facts can also classified based on their structure they can be simple or complex

• Simple facts are based on basic knowledge that everyone can obtain with his own senses. For example, if I say summer is usually hot, this is an example of a simple fact. However, some argue that this fact is also based on other facts. As the word SUMMER can be also seen as a complex concept, that can be further simplified. Keeping that this can go forever. In this context we agree that there is a basic Collective knowledge shared among each group of people. The amount of knowledge might change. but we accept that all facts belong to this knowledge are simple.

• Complexity: it means facts can be sophisticated. For example, if I say: "the circle area is equal to Pi r square"

This is a complex fact well this is very complex although you might think it looks simple. Regarding how many conncepts we are using from geometry only. We are using three concepts:

• a circle which is a round plane figure whose boundary consists of points that are equidistance from another point called the center the area which is the measurement of the surface of an object.
• r the radius which is a straight line that connects the center of the circle to any point on its boundary
• Pi which is a very complex Concept in mathematics it's constant but we do not know its value exactly the square function is also used it means to multiply the value with itself.

to note down the results and here multiplication is also used and each of these concepts can be easily further simplified into another basic concepts.

so do you still think that this is a simple fact? now we understand that there are two types of fact based on complexity simple and complex.

Facts Development: Simple Fact

As we described in the previous lines, simple facts are usually part of the collective knowledge of a group of people. It is suitable for daily use.
additionally, you do not need a high level of skills to handle it. the process of development of a simple fact starts from a physical phenomenon. Thus, simple facts are from natural sources.
Humen use their senses to understand nature. Thus, sensexual perspective is the next step in the process people need to see the phenomenon to hear it to touch it and the most important here is to have a physical connection with the phenomenon itself.
The Next Step is to process what results from The sensational perception and this step is completely mental and personal each individual has different experiences and skills. Thus, he will process the data collected from senses differently and the results, for sure will be different. Noting that the first two steps are completely personal. So, each individual might do it separately on the contrasts the third step is done collectively it is called the constitutive definition, it is where the phenomenon will have a name this name will be accepted and used by a group of people.
different groups of people use different words with the same concept, they might also not get all the aspects of the concept. For example, they describe one aspect or two from it and there is no problem with that at all. The main objective of the simple facts is to serve a group of people in their daily life.
So if the constitutive definition is enough for that group; there is no problem. Simple facts can be also used in science, however, to do that they need to pass another step using a scientific method.
the simple fact will be tested several times, so the simple facts might be merged together to cover all aspects of the phenomenon and this is called the creation of an operational definition.
While constitutive definitions are limited to local group of people operational definitions are the opposite they are Global and cover as much as possible from the phenomenon aspects; here at this step, the fact is ready for the scientific use. To clear the previous points. We have the next example:

• let us took the fire as a physical phenomenon, people might have different experiences with it:

• For example they might use it as a source of heat or as a source of light
• Others might have got burned with it and they have a painful memory related to it.

Noting that heat light and pain are directly related to senses, then the brain will interpret what senses have got. In the previous example, the things changed from being physical to the obstruction the mental perception, for heat is called hot and for pain for example is going to be fear and so on.

Thus, having different experiences will create different results. If fire burned a home it will have another point of view for people, other than who used it to cook or daily life use; That's why our linguistic expression of these concepts will not be the same.
Clearly we will use different words to express that. But these words might refer to one aspect of the phenomena or two. That's why constitutive definition might not be clear and are not accurate.

Finally using science we will get a unified Global accepted definition for what the fire is. It is a rabbit oxygenation of material.

complex facts are built using simple facts we can group the simple facts; then use reason to create new knowledge based on the old facts, the results will be more complicated.
this is a daily process because it uses reason and it is based on logic. Developing complex facts require High skills and it is the job of scientists and philosophers.
to do that simple facts need to be studied. for example, we can search the relation between two simple facts imagine two scientific facts A and B scientists and philosopher will question the relationship between them are they related to each other does a affect B or vice versa is the effect Mutual.
For example, the sun creates heat thus heat is related to sun, we can also write that sun is the source of the heat.
We can also study the changeability of the simple fact as time passes. For example, we can ask if the fact a is changing in time? If yes, at which rate? and we can go on like this...
the changing of the length of the day during the year is a great example here.
Finally we can study facts by looking into patterns. A pattern is a repeated decorative design. We can ask the following questions: are there any identifiable patterns? if yes, what are they? why they are formed like this? For example, for centuries people looked at the sky and identify the pattern of the Stars creating complex facts and Concepts.

Facts Development: Complex Fact

Complex Facts designing

Starting from the physical phenomenon, it is the initial source of the complex facts. Using sensors or tools, human can observe the phenomena and measure its aspects; the results need to be analyzed to create possible answers. Although, each answer is a possible explanation for the phenomenon, all need verifications, and normally we cannot verify all the list we have.
Thus, using logic and reason we need to select some possible answers for further investigation, and this is a tricky step; because you can easily miss the right answer, and do not select it. That's why we need people with high skills, here those people master logic, and reasoning and have far less probability to miss the right explanations.
But keep in mind, that this is always possible, thus if none of the selected answer passes the next steps we might have selected only wrong answers or simply the right answer is not yet proposed so you need to do more observation or analyze the obtained results more carefully after you selected some answers now each of them is called a hypothesis and you need to test them and to do that you need to check known facts or laws and start looking if the explanation agree with them if a selected explanation passed several fact

checks it starts to have a scientific value with other strong hypotheses. It can be used to create a theory.
a theory is a temporal explanation of a set of phenomena. theories are not stable, and are still under test, but how do we test it.

Interestingly, we need more less reliable hypothesis to test it, so a theory is strong if what it says can be validated with other hypotheses, and the more the theory passes the tests, the more it becomes valid, and accepted by scientists as a possible explanation for the studied phenomenon.

Finally, when there is no possible way to prove that a theory is wrong, and when the theory is capable of predict the exact explanation and behavior of the phenomenon it become a theorem a theorem is the natural law and the explanation of a natural or human-made phenomenon and as we did with the simple fact let us make a real example from the physical world to see how these abstract ideas line together and let us talk about Pythagorean theorem please note what I'm going to say is completely fantasy and has no historical evidence to support it but this is highly probably how do we arrive to this theorem at least this is what I think

Examples

Kingdom lands

Once Upon a Time there was a kingdom, somewhere in the ancient world. There were farmers working in the king's land, the farmers need to report their harvest to the King's Men. A, B, and C are farms located to each other, as shown in the picture. clearly, A is larger than B and C. The kingsmen started to notice that the harvest of C and B together, is almost equal to the Harvest from farm A, and this is a good observation.

Next step, is to analyze the collected data, and here is a list of possible answers:

1. It is a Lucky Strike
2. Farmers of B and C work harder while farmer of A is lazy
3. The area of A is equal to the area of B and C together

the kingsman need them to treat each possible answer as hypothesis, and test it.

regarding the first hypothesis; Kingsman need to wait for another Year's Harvest and the result is the same, even in the third year, there was no change. Thus, this hypothesis is not true.

regarding the second hypothesis; Kingsman watched the farmers and they found that they are active, and work at the same rate. thus the second hypothesis is not valid

regarding the third hypothesis; Kingsman measured the area of the Farms and it was the same, so this is a valid hypothesis this was okay for the kingsman.

However, a wise man in the king's court take it one step further, and wrote down the following Theory:

“ the area of the square whose side is the hypotonus is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides ”

Please note, the theory is General. It is abstract while the hypothesis is related to a physical specific example; for years Kingsman measured the area of the lands in every similar scenario and the theory was always true. Thus because it cannot proven but true as Theory becomes the famous fidegorian law a square is equal to B squared plus c squared. If wondering, where does the square come from? please check how to calculate the area of a square it is the value of its side squared.

let us know look at what Oxford dictionary of Science say about Hipothesis, to this Theory and Theorem please note that I am using the 1999 edition of the dictionary and the entries might be slightly different in other Editions based on the dictionary:

“ hypotenuse is a law that might not be universally true, a theory is a description of nature that encompasses more than one law but has not achieved the incontrovertible status of a theorem; a theorem is a descriptive principle of nature that holds in all circumstances covered there are no loopholes in laws of nature and any exceptional event that did not comply with the law would require the existing theorem to be discarded ”

we have seen that they referred to completely different concepts and let me go further on this point a hippothesis is closed to physical world it's easy to test on the other hand a theory has a theoretical nature it's formed as an abstract concept and

Gravity

let's take the gravity as example to see the previously mentioned differences a good hypothesis about gravity, is that if you throw an object or if you let an object fail freely in the Earth's atmosphere it will fell down.

This hypothesis is very close to the physical reality, in fact, you can easily follow the hypothesis, and test it yourself. On the other hand, a theory that explains what gravity is reads as follow:

“ it is a force attracting and even distribution of masses together ”

It looks very abstract, in fact this Theory, have seven words and five of them are Concepts need to be well defined in order to understand what the theory is trying to say. they are Force, attraction, even, distribution and Mass.

if you are not very good in physics, you probably need to spend at least 30 minutes to search for each of these wordst to understand them, then link them together. so you can find and understand what the theory is trying to say.

on the contrary, the hypothesis can be easily tested. in fact, the relationship between theories and hypothesis is much more complex. if we go back to the steps we have mentioned before, and focuses on the test you need to do on the hypothesis, here you need to use other theories, thus, hypothesis serve two tasks.

1. it is the basis of a new developed Theory
2. it is used to test other theories

on the other hand where a theory need to be tested it is tested on a newly suggested hypothesis. I will not go further, I know this is too abstract, however. if you wish to learn more of this I suggest the work of Fred and kirlinger published in 1986 and entitled foundations of Behavioral research and before we finish this section let me insist on the fact that the process is not linear please do not imagine that this is a fast handy process no it is not there can be uncountable obstacles in the way

for example there might be no tools to test, because our technologies is not advanced enough, and take this example:

each time in 1907 in his special theory of relativity suggested that gravity if strong enough can distort the time flow, on paper we can see that clearly in equations, but how we can test it? it took scientists 50 more years to be able to detect this Distortion the problem can also be related to the lack of understanding due to the lack of data

Dark matter

We know that it exists somehow in the universe. but we cannot tell how, in fact, we know nothing else about it. Thus, we cannot propose any possible answers to explain it.

finally we might need brilliant mind to push the process ahead. just remember that there is three centuries between Einstein and Newton. So, what is the actual process well it is a long chain of theories that are separated with non-equal types each Theory push our understanding a little. thus, at the end we will arrive to the theorem a nice example is the classical and quantum mechanics.

Newton established his mechanics it was Universal at that time there is nothing we know that does not follow it but as we advance in technology we discovered small entities like atoms neutrons and electrons. Suddenly a Newton laws are now not Universal anymore a complete new branch of mechanics was developed to address these small entities and until now we still have no answer on what is the Theory of Everything that can combine the two mechanics together.

Notes on Scientific facts

In this final section of the chapter, we will discuss a general notes related to the scientific facts:
1. Regarding the validity of scientific facts

we have seen that it varies based on how much tests does the fact help probability is the least valid. It's just a possible answer our explanation and it has not been tested yet.
hypothesis is an explanation that is selected for testing from a set of possible probabilities, or answers using logic and reason theories are temporary explanation of physical phenomena.
They combine normally several hypothesهs together a theory has held considerably against tests several times and under several circumstances.
however, it's not capable of explaining all aspects of the studied phenomenon, and still it needs more development and tests to reach its final form which is the theorem. a theorem is a natural look with no lobe holes in it. we never a theorem is presented it is valid.
2. Linearity

We have also talked about the linearity of the process and we showed that the process is not linear, but rather it's a long chain of slowly developed theories with an equal time interval between them.
Details are described above.

3. Not unidirectional

We need also to mention that the process is not unidirectional always. Although we have shown it like this in this chapter.
In fact, we don't always go from the simple specific facts toward the general. In humanities, where humen are the subject, it goes in the inverse way. It means that the direction is from general facts to the specific ones. The work of a judge in a public court, as an example. The judge has general laws that draw the outlines of the justice. In many cases, there is no specific law that address the studied case. Thus, the judge need to explain the general fact inductively to create a specific judgment.
However, in almost all applied sciences the process detectively goes from the simple facts to the theorem; passing by hypotenuse and theories, that is true because applied science are based on physical nature, and their main objective is to explain it.

• Definitions

• Deductive Reason: is used in complex facts are built starting from simple facts.

• Inductive reason: is used when a symbol fact is extracted from a complex fact if you wish to know more about the tools please refer to the chapter 1 where the two were will addressed

• hypothesis as we have showed before is a possible explanation for a physical phenomenon we don't know if it is valid or not and we need to test it

• Assumption is any statement that is believed to be true if you judge people by their look or appearance well this is an assumption if you think about what others feel or think.

conclusion

I would like to say that scientific facts are not about truth or falsehood. In fact, using the word right or wrong is not suitable in science. if you have noticed, we always use the word valid and invalid.
Scientific facts have a changeable nature, and science is in a continuous move. The important point from scientific perspective is that facts are testable and can be proven. If a new discovery happened or a new calculation is made, feel free to challenge any scientific facts. This will never be unsuitable, instead it is a part of science itself, as this step will advanceknowledge.
However, all those signs is in motion you should not always think that this motion is Random, and that because scientific facts are changeable. Every fact we have today will be invalid in time, this is not how science work.
science is oriented by scientific facts and the change is always toward better and more accurate forms and laws. it is non-reversible. thus, it's rare to prove that ethereum is wrong this is not impossible, but it is rare to happen; because changing the fact to thereom will take a long way that includes a large number of tests. so it is rare and highly not anticipated to have a theorem that is invalid.

However, a theorem might be changed to be more comprehensive. and here you have it the scientific facts if you arrive here this is the end of the theoretical part of chapter 2. chapter 3 will be about scientific methodologies but before that forget not to check the Practical part of chapter 2. and to answer its questions.