Industrial and organizational psychology/Module 8

Motivation To Work

Introduction and motivational "metaphors"

Motivation relates to the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior.

The person is like a "machine", our behaviors/actions are reflexive and involuntary, done without conscious awareness.

The person is like a "judge", where we seek info and see if events are positive and/or negative. We hypohtesize about the foundation for these events and how certain actions affect others.

The person is "intentional", develops goals and plans in accordance to their central belief in life.

The person is a "scientist", where an individual analyzes internal and external information.

History

1. Motivation = Instincts [Frued]
2. Motivation = Need, motivation, and drive [Maslow]
3. Motivation = Behaviorist twist [Skinner]
4. Motivation = Field theory, group dynamics [Lewin]

The formula for motivation in the workplace

(Motivation x ability) - (situational constraints) = performance

In this field, we want to investigate whether or not satisfaction from one's time at work is affected by satisfaction one experiences in non-work situations.

Motivation &...

Attitudes: Relatively stable feelings/beliefs directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, or jobs. These attitudes include job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement.

Personality: Relationships exist between personality characteristics and performance motivation. Neuroticism negatively relates to performance motivation, while conscientiousness positvely relates to performance motivation.

Module 8.2 - Motivational Theories (Classic Approaches)

"Person-as-machine" --> Maslow's need theory (internal mechanical theory)

All humans have a basic set of needs that express themselves over a life span of their life. This serves as their internal "pushes".

Levels in Maslow's Need Theory

• Self-actualization - The desire to develop one's capabilities to the fullest or become everything which can be attained.
• Esteem needs - Respected for accomplishments
• Love/Social/Belongingness - Wants to be accepted by others
• Security needs - Needs to have a safe environment
• Physiological needs - Basic needs, including food and water.

So how does this apply to the workforce? Employers need to know at what need-level the individual worker is operating at, and cater to that.

Variations to this

Two-factor theory: 2 basic needs, not 5; needs are independent.

1. Hygiene (physical & security needs)
2. Motivator needs (social, esteem, self-actualization)

ERG theory by Alderfer: 3 basic needs, not 2 or 5

1. Existence
2. Relatedness
3. Growth

Not very supported

Reinforcement theory: an external mechanical theory

• Behavior depends on 3 elements: stimulus, response, and reward.
• Contingent reward: reward depends on response
• Intermittent & continuous rewards: intermittent rewards produce higher performance levels

Person-as-Scientist Models

Vroom's VIE theory:

• Valence: Strength of person's preference for particular outcome.
• Instrumentality: Perceived relationship between performance and attainment of a certain outcome.
• Expectancy: Perceived relationship between effort and performance.

Dissonance theory: this suggests that tensions exist when individuals hold incompatible thoughts. This theory assumes that individuals always seek some sense of "balance" & will direct their behavior toward seeking and maintaining that balance.

Equity theory: individuals look at world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes. Compare their inputs and outcomes to those of "comparison others".

Module 8.3 - Modern Approaches to Work Motivation (slide 21)

• Person-as-Intentional Approach: A goal-setting theory where the goal is the main means of motivation. There is a difference between goal acceptance (participating and knowing a goal is there) and goal commitment (money being the motivator for work), however.

Feedback loop is important between the "knowledge of results" and "intermediate stages".

Control theory is based on feedback loop. This assumes that individuals compare a standard to an actual outcome and adjust their behavior so that the outcome comes into agreement with a standard.

Self-efficacy is essentially "self-confidence" to achieving a goal or successfully performing a task. This is developed and increased by modeling, social persuasion, and mastery of their experiences.

Common Themes

• Intention is key in motivation.
• Theory should include element of "person-as-scientist".
• Theory should include concept of "self-assessment".
• Some non-cognitive elements are included in the "ultimate" motivation theory.

Module 8.4 - Practical Issues in Motivation

Can motivation be measured? Yes, through a motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ). It measures these 6 aspects of "general" motivation:

1. Desire to learn
2. Mastery
3. Competitiveness
4. Worry
5. Emotionality
6. Other referenced goals

According to Hofstede's cultural theory, cultures differ on 5 dimensions:

• Collectivism/individualism
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Masculinity/femininity
• Power dimensions
• Long-term vs. short-term orientation

Different types of motivational practices are used by managers across various culture, including differential distribution of rewards, participation in goal setting and decision making, design and redesign of jobs and organizations, and quality improvement.

Differences can even exist between generations (Baby Boomers vs. Gen X). Research shows that younger employees are more "me-oriented" and today's workers are more proud in their work than <1974.

Productivity measurement and enhancement system (ProMES): uses goal setting, rewards, and feedback to increase motivation and performance. On the positive note, evidence shows significant gains in productivity after the use of ProMES.

Steps for ProMES

1. Forming a design team
2. Identifying objectives
3. Identifying indicators
4. Defining contingencies
5. Designing the feedback system
6. Giving & responding to feedback
7. Monitoring the system