Industrial and organizational psychology/Module 7

Module 7.1 - Foundations of Training and Learning

• Training - Systematically acquiring a load of skills, concepts, and/or attitudes that are geared towards performance improvement in another environment. The basic foundation for training programs is learning.

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior and human capabilities, which are produced by experience and practice. The 3 broad categories of learning outcomes are the following:

1. Cognitive outcomes
2. Skill-based outcomes
3. Affective outcomes

Performance are the actions/behaviors which are relevant to the organization's goals. These can be measured in terms of each individual's proficiency. It can be directly observed.

Training --> Probability of Learning; Learning --> Better Job Performance.

Training Needs Analysis

This is in a 3-step process:

1. Organizational analysis (company-wide goals + problems = where is training needed?)
2. Task analysis (Tasks performed + KSAOs needed --> what employees must do to perform sufficiently)
3. Person analysis (Knowledge, skill, and performance of the one who needs training)

One must figure out where the training is needed (organizational), what is being trained (task), and who will oversee the training (person).

• Organizational analysis - examines the organization's goals, available resources, and organization's environment to figure out whether training should be needed. Accounts for climate of organization and its subunits.
• Task analysis - Figures out what employees must do so that they can successfully do their job. This may consist of task statements, homogeneous task clusters, and KSAOs needed. Includes assessment of competencies.
• Person analysis - Figures out which individuals within an organization should recieve training and the instructions needed. Assesses the trainee's personality, ability, and experience.

The trainee should be ready and motivated (trainee characteristics).

Learning & Motivational Theories applied to training

• Reinforcement theory - learning results from association between behaviors and rewards. Positive reinforcement (good behavior? here's the reward!) and behavior modification (recognition and feedback) are used.
• Social learning theory proposes behavior modeling: essentially the trainee sees modeling behaviors, practices it, recieves feedback, and uses the final product behavior on the job.

Cognitive & Social Learning Theory

Includes:

• Self-efficacy: Self-confidence, essentially.
• Goal setting: specific, tough goals directed at performance improvement.
• Feedback: Knowing if one's work is positive or not, figures out tweaks to improve work performance.

Principles of Learning

• Active practice: Actively participating in training/work tasks.
• Automaticity: Takes place when tasks can be performed with limited attention (overlearning after mastery of a task).
• Whole learning: When the entire task is practiced at once. This is more effective if the complex task has relatively high organization.
• Part learning: When subtasks are practiced separately & later combined. This is more effective when the complex task has low organization (such as surgeons and pilots).
• Massed practice: Individuals practice a task continuously and without rest (such as cramming for a test).
• Distributed practice: Rest intervals between practice sessions; generally results in more efficient learning & retention than massed practice.

Fidelity

The extent to which a task is trained similar to the task required by the job.

• Physical fidelity - The extent to which training task mirrors physicla features of the task performed on job.
• Psychological fidelity - Extent to which training task helps trainees develop KSAOs necessary to perform job.

Learning Organizations

These are companies that emphasize continous learning, knowledge sharing, and personal mastery. Additional features include emphasized problem-solving/innovation, developing systems that enhance knowledge sharing, and encourage flexibility and experimentation.

Global challenges require emphasis on global learning organizations.

Module 7.2 - Content & Methods of Training (slide 23)

Training methods include the 4 basic principles:

1. Present relevant information & content to be learned.
2. Demonstrate KSAOs to be learned
3. Create opportunties for trainees to practice skills
4. Provide feedback to trainees during and after practice

On-Site Training Methods

• On-the-job training: Trainees observe and learn from more experienced employees.
• Apprenticeship: Formal program used to teach a skilled trade.
• Job rotation: Employees move to various jobs, departments, or areas of company.

Off-Site Training Methods

• Classroom lectures
• Programmed instruction: linear/branching programming
• Simulators: Controlled reproducibility/safety considerations/learning considerations.

Distance Learning & Computer-Based Training

• Distance learning: Can occur across multiple sites at once. It's more affordable, learning-tailored alternative to live instruction. I-O research is just beginning to dwell into this field.
• Computer-based training: Allow trainees to individualize their learning experience. Here, trainees have more control over instruction.

Critical thinking skills are required for active involvement in applying principles under instruction. Advances in technology make critical thinking more important in the workplace. The degree to which trainees apply knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained in training to their job is known as transfer of training. This climate consists of wokrplace characteristics that either inhibit or facilitate trainsfer of training (horizontal/vertical transfer).

Module 7.3 - Evaluating Training Programs

Training evaluation: Systematic collection of descriptive and judgmental info that can be used to make good training decisions.

We can look at the "training criteria": Kirkpatrick's 4-level model.

1. Reaction criteria (Level 1)
2. Learning criteria (Level 2)
3. Behavioral criteria (Level 3)
4. Result criteria (Level 4)

1&2 = Internal criteria

3&4 = External criteria

The framework for this goes as following:

1. Reaction: Affective reactions, utility judgments
2. Learning: Immediate knowledge, knowledge retention, behavior/skill demonstration
3. Transfer
4. Results

Utility Analysis

Benefits of training programs are based on:

• # of individuals trained
• difference in job performance between trained and untrained employees
• length of time training expected to influence performance
• variability in job performance in untrained employees

Training Evaluation Designs

The strongest training evaluation designs include:

• Random assignment of participants to conditions.
• Control group
• Measures obtained before and after training

Special topics in training evaluations:

• EEO issues: organizations should document training practices and programs thoroughly. Special consideration of age discrimination.
• Training/coaching for tests: In general, score gains from coaching are small.

Module 7.4: Specialized training programs

Development: formal education, job experiences, mentoring relationships, assessments of personality, abilities that help employees prepare for future.

Assessment centers are used to evaluate organizational, leadership, and communication skills. Managers with high potential generally are invited to participate in these events.

360 degree feedback: These are received positively and effective at improving performance.

Coaching is practical, goal-focused and is served as a 1-1 learning experience for professionals. It is flexible and usually used for individualized learning for managers/executives.

Informal training is included in specific job assignments, experiences, and activities outside work.

Sexual harassment awareness training: Quid pro quo, prevent a hostile working environment. The EEOC encourages clear communication in regards to a 'zero tolerance policy', to establish an effective grievance process, and take immediate action when such complaints arise.

Ethics training is used to increase the likelihood that employees will perform jobs ethically.

Cross-Cultural Training

This is critical in helping expatriates adapt to new environments, since culture shock can affect employees. This is designed to prepare individuals from one culture to interact more effectively with individuals from different cultures