Green exercise

Type classification: this is a notes resource.

Overview

There is growing interest in the theory and research about the physical and mental health benefits of green exercise (exercise in natural environments) as the psychobiological mechanisms involved.

There several meta-analyses which synthesise the findings in this area. They find that green exercise reduces negative mood; it less clear whether it enhances positive mood. The more natural the environment, the greater the benefits, but even short exposures (e.g., 10 minutes) can be effective.

A useful critique of theoretical and methodological issues in green exercise, with recommendations about ways forward, is provided by Laezza et al. (2024).

This page contains some notes and ideas for those interested in green exercise research.

Goals

Goals of this resource page:

1. Understand what "green exercise" is.
2. Review the theoretical and empirical green exercise literature
3. Document theories, models, and processes involved in the physical and psychology effects of "green exercise".
4. Develop methodologies to better understand the potential benefits and mechanisms of green exercise.

What is green exercise ?

"Green exercise is [physical] activity in the presence of nature." (Barton & Pretty, 2010, p. 3947)

Green exercise is physical activities undertaken whilst exposed to natural environments (Pretty et al., 2005).

Green exercise, in its simplest form, is physical exercise performed in (relatively) natural environments (Mackay & Neill, 2010.

Examples of green exercise:

• 
  A walk in the park; perhaps the most iconic example of green exercise.
• 
  Outdoor recreation activities such as cross-country running and mountain biking
• 
  Water-based exercise activities such as open water swimming, canoeing, kayaking, rafting, and sailing.
• 
  Gardening is a very common form of green exercise.
• 
  Free movement and play in nature, such as sensual exploration of self in relation to natural surroundings (e.g., time at beach) is part of green exercise; it stimulates the senses, brain, and emotions

Theory

Understandings the psychobiological effects of green exercise potential can draw on and test aspects of several different theories including:

Common theories

• Biophilia,
• Evolutionary psychology
• Attention restoration theory
• Exercise psychology theories such as:
  • Thermogenic hypothesis
  • Cardiovascular conditioning

What does "green" mean?

"Green" is a somewhat problematic term and interpretation of "green" warrants further consideration. "Green" is a proxy for "natural" - or the relatively absence of "artificial". But some natural environments are not green (e.g., blue, brown) and some environments are green but not natural (e.g., a room painted green).

"Greenness" can be conceptualised and measured:

• Objectively: e.g., Sugiyama et al. (2008) define “green” environments as vegetated areas such as parks, open spaces, and playgrounds.
• Subjectively: e.g., green exercise as exercise performed in environments with a greater ratio of natural to artificial elements than is typically encountered by that person in everyday life.

The green in green exercise is not meant literally, but rather figuratively to refer to the naturalness (vs. artificialness) of an environment. However, further conceptualisation and measurement of “greenness”, particularly as a psychological construct, however, remains underexplored (Bodin & Hartig, 2003).

Motivation

• Theory of planned behavior (Flowers et al., 2017; Flowers, 2018)

Research

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses have examined the effects of green exercise on physical and mental well-being:

• Brito et al. (2021): This systematic review (49 studies) and meta-analysis (24 stuies) found that there are some exercise efficiency/efficacy benefits for nature-based outdoor vs. indoor (artificial) exercise environments.
• Barton and Pretty (2010): This multi-study analysis assessed the optimal duration and intensity of green exercise needed to enhance self-esteem and mood. The meta-analysis of 10 UK studies involving 1,252 participants found that short durations of green exercise yielded significant improvements in both self-esteem and mood, with diminishing but still positive returns for longer durations. All natural environments were beneficial, with the presence of water enhancing the positive effects. The study also noted variations across different demographics, with the mentally ill experiencing one of the greatest self-esteem improvements.
• Lahart et al. (2019): This systematic review assessed studies comparing outdoor green and virtual green exercise with indoor exercise which lacked nature exposure. The findings were inconclusive regarding the added benefits of outdoor or virtual green exercise over indoor non-green exercise.
• Li et al. (2022): This meta-analysis of 19 controlled trials with 1,662 participants examined the psychological benefits of green exercise in wild and urban greenspaces. The study found that green exercise reduced negative emotions such as anxiety, tension, anger, depression, and fatigue, while enhancing positive feelings like vigor, comfort, naturalness, and relaxation. Notably, exercise in wild environments was more effective than in urban greenspaces for improving vigor and comfort.
• Wicks et al. (2022): This systematic review and meta-analysis examined 33 studies about the psychological benefits of outdoor physical activity in natural versus urban environments. The study found that exercising in natural settings led to greater improvements in a variety of outcomes (including anxiety, fatigue, positive affect, and vigour) compared to urban environments.

These reviews highlight the need for more rigorous and long-term studies to conclusively determine the benefits of green exercise.

Universities

University of Essex

A key researcher in the area of green exercise has been Professor Jules Pretty et al. at the University of Essex. Some studies are:

• Pretty et al. (2005)
• Pretty et al. (2007)
• Barton & Pretty (2010).
• Flowers et al., (2017); Flowers (2018)
• Wicks et al. (2022)
• See http://greenexercise.org for a summary of their research work.

Examples of UoE research:

“ Recent research has investigated the effects on depression and overall mental health of exercising outside in a nature-based setting, such as a park—termed ‘green exercise’. Pretty et al. (2005), reporting on a study involving simulated green exercise (exercise on a treadmill while exposed to photographs of green spaces compared with other spaces), found that green exercise appears to have benefits both for cardiovascular health and mental health. A subsequent study by Peacock, Hine and Pretty (2007) compared exercising outdoors (in a ‘Country Park’) and exercising indoors (in a shopping centre). In comparison to the indoor exercise, the outdoor exercise was found to have more positive outcomes in terms of mood, and to be associated with an increase in the level of vigour or energy. ”

(p. 16, http://www.healthyparkshealthypeoplecongress.org/images/stories/documents/hphp.pdf.pdf)

“ Research conducted at the University of Essex identified four principal reasons why people enjoy green exercise:

1. natural and social connections — being with friends and family, bonding with pets, watching wildlife, evoking memories of happier times in the past (e.g., special outings), stimulating spiritual feelings
2. sensory stimulation — noting colors and sounds from nature’s diversity, breathing fresh air, being exposed to weather, experiencing a sense of adventure/excitement/fun, enjoying an escape from pollution
3. activity — learning manual skills, achieving physically challenging tasks, enjoying the energy of physical activities
4. escape from modern life — having time to think and reflect/clear the head, getting away from pressures and stress, recharging batteries

”

(Source: https://www.ideafit.com/body-mind-benefits-green-exercise-0/)

University of Canberra

1. Mackay (2008) and Mackay and Neill (2010)
2. Holgate (2010)
3. Rugendyke (2012)

Deakin University

1. See Townsend et al.
2. Townsend, M. & Ebden, M. (2006). 'Feel Blue, Touch Green': Final report of a project undertaken by Deakin University, Barwon Helath, Parks Victoria, Alcoa Angelsea, ANGAIR and Surf Coast Shire. Retrieved from http://www.interenvironment.org/cipa/Feel%20Blue,%20Touch%20Green.pdf

QUT

1. See Brymer et al.
2. Brymer, E., Cuddihy, T. F., & Sharma-Brymer, V. (2010). The role of nature-based experiences in the development and maintenance of wellness. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 1, 21-28.

Research and discussion questions

Some possible research and/or discussion questions:

1. What kind of green exercise do people in?
   1. Type of activity?
   2. Length of time?
   3. Location?
   4. Intensity?
   5. Alone or with others?
   6. How "green" (natural) is the exercise?
   7. Is it informally or formally organised?
2. What happens to people when they participate in green exercise?
3. How does a green exercise experience differ (if at all) from physical exercise in non-natural environments?
4. What do people like about green exercise?
5. What do people not like about green exercise?
6. How much green exercise people ideally like to do?
7. What do 'ideal' green exercise experiences look like?
   1. One-off?
   2. Regularly?
8. What motivates green exercise?
   1. What enables/facilitates green exercise?
   2. What are the barriers to green exercise?
9. What is the role of cognition during green exercise? e.g., what is the impact of using associative, dissociative, and environmental thinking during GE?

References

Bratman, G. N. Daily, G. C., Levy, B. J., & Gross, J. J. (2015). The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition. Landscape and Urban Planning.

Brito, H. S., Carraca, E. V., Palmeira, A. L., Ferreira, J. P., Vleck, V., & Araujo, D. (2021). Benefits to performance and well-being of nature-based exercise: A critical systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(1), 62-77. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c05151

Flowers, E. P., Freeman, P., & Gladwell, V. F. (2017). The development of three questionnaires to assess beliefs about green exercise. 'International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(10), 1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101172

Flowers, E. P. (2018). Exploring the role of beliefs on green exercise behaviours and outcomes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Essex. https://repository.essex.ac.uk/22992/

Hansmann, R., Hug, S., & Seeland, K. (2007). Restoration and stress relief through physical activities in forests and parks. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 6(4), 213-225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2007.08.004

Lahart, I., Darcy, P., Gidlow, C., & Calogiuri, G. (2019). The effects of green exercise on physical and mental wellbeing: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(8), 1352. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16081352

Laezza, L., De Dominicis, S., & Brondino, M. (2024). Reassessing green exercise research: unveiling methodological gaps and pathways for progress. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 6, 1449059. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2024.1449059

Li, H., Zhang, X., Bi, S., Cao, Y., & Zhang, G. (2022). Psychological benefits of green exercise in wild or urban greenspaces: A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 68, 127458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127458

Wicks, C., Barton, J., Orbell, S., & Andrews, L. (2022). Psychological benefits of outdoor physical activity in natural versus urban environments: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of experimental studies. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 14(3), 1037-1061. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12353

Wooller, J. J., Barton, J., Gladwell, V. F., & Micklewright, D. (2015). Occlusion of sight, sound and smell during Green Exercise influences mood, perceived exertion and heart rate. International Journal of Environmental Health Research.

See also

• Green exercise (Wikipedia)
• Green exercise (Commons)
• Outdoor education
• Psychology of natural scenes

External links

• Green exercise research programme, University of Essex
• Jules Pretty
• Green exercise (Google search)